BIPN 150 Final

Diagnosis of William Syndrome is typically based on genotyping to show what genetic change?

only 1 copy of ELN, heterozygote deletion on chromosome 7

What are some treatments for TBI

physical therapy, education on preventing future damages, CT scan to evaluate

what indicates increase anxiety for open field

decrease amount of time spent in the center of open field and will more likely be in the corner

amphetamine

dopamine

clozapine

dopamine

phenothiazines

dopamine

how does the dopamine system affect addiction

dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens is decreased in virtually all drug-dependent rodents as well as see morphological changes to the spiny neurons of the nucleus; therefore want more of the drug because they are "dopamine impoverished"

how is bovine spongiform encephalitis thought to be most commonly spread among animals

food supply used to feed cattle was contained was contaminated with scrapes and thought to transmit that way

describe Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

form of acquired brain injury when a sudden trauma (penetrating/ closed) causes damage to brain

where are CB1 (cannabinoid) receptors found?

found in glutamergic, dopaminergic, and cholinergic primary projection neuron and GABAergic interneurons

what were some axon responses to FPI TBI

functional impairments, including electrophysiological alterations in corpus collasum and deficits in spatial cognition without hippocampual cell death. both myelin and unmyelinated axons were measured and saw that there was NOT significant morphometric change in myelinate axons BUT saw a decrease in unmyelinated fiber density

tonic phase

generalized stiffening of body and limbs (back arched) which may cause patient tofall

what are 2 neuropathologies of Prion disease

1. neurodegeneration 2. spongiform encephalitis

the order of when spinal cord transfected

1. synaptic transmission off. 2. synpatic terminal degenerates (not getting information to terminal) 3. wallerian degeneration 4. myelin debris 5. microglia infiltrate to clean up and immune react 6. chromatolysis (disintegration of Nissl bodies) 7. retraction of synaptic terminal at nearby (post and pre-synaptic)

3 tests to evaluate anxiety-like behavior

1.elevated plus maze 2. light-dark box 3. open field

what chromosome is APP encoded

21

xanomeline

Acetylcholine

which of the following is not an inhibitor derived from myelin? a. NOGO b. CSPG c. MAG d. OMpg

CSPG is not derived from myelin. present at glial scarring

name 3 imaging techniques used for epilepsy

MRI, PET, functionalMRI, DWI (diffused weighted imaging)

Hereditary CJD arises due to a mutation in what gene?

PrP

T/F Down Syndrome affects more genes

TRUE about 400 more genes affected

is addiction a developmental disease?

YES, typically begins in childhood and and adolescence when our decision making is not clear yet (prefrontal cortex still developing)

FPI of 1.0 atm caused what?

it did not cause learning or memory dysfunction after injury. did similar to control in morris water maze

REST in DS

it is controlled by DYRK1A. normally Dyrk1a is controlled by REST. but in DS it is upregulated so that REST gets phosphorylated and ubiquitin groups are added so that proteins are targeted to proteosome breakdown. In addition any phosphorylated REST will be degraded by DYSKR1a, which means less transcriptional inhibition of DSYRK1a. this deregulation leads to neurodegenration

consequences of spinal cord injury

loss of voluntary movements, balance, control of breathing

what are 2 distinct pathways that may account for increase in tau phosphorylation?

-phosphorylation at Ser and Thr sites by kinases: glycogen synthase -3Beta, Cdk5, Akt. -acute stress -> CRFR1 (positively induces) CDK -> leads to phosphorylation and acute stress -> CRFR2 (negatively inhibits) JNK pathway-> phosphorylation of tau

what are the key mediators of HPA axis?

1. CRH 2. ACTH. 3. cotisol

you find a gene named iDegrade, which encodes one of the most potent molecules to increase metabolism of amyloid in an assay. List 3 potential experiments if iDegrade may be beneficial to a mouse model of AD

1. ChR2 to use light to specifically activate iDegrade gene or Halorhodopsin to specifically silence iDegrade and improve function 2.create transgenic mouse by knockout in iDegrade and show iDegrade mutant mice display increase endogenous AB levels 3. can over express iDegrade in mouse and if supposedly reduces AB concentration, observe behavior 4. do in vitro models expressing iDegrade reduced AB levels on plate and study electrophysiology and improvment in cognitive functions compared to wild type cell cultures

name 3 neuronal structures that are essential in anxiety

1. amygdala 2. hippocampus 3. hypothalamus

name 3 hormones or neurotranmistters that are essential in stress/anxiety response

1. cortisol 2. ACTH 3. epinephrine

what are 2 neurogenic brain regions where adult neurogenesis occurs?

1. dentate gyrus of hippocampus (subgranual zone and subventricular zone) 2. olfactory bulb

how to target and help prion disease

1. drugs to make prpc resistant to folding into prpsc 2. drugs to unfold prpsc 3. drugs to make prpsc more easily targeted for degradation and clearance

list 3 lines of evidence support that B-amyloid peptide plays a casual role in AD

1. human mutation in APP gene associated with increase in AB levels in AD 2. human mutation in genes important for processing app correlated with increase in AB levels 3. overexpressing mutated human APP gene will result in AD phenotype (neuropathological and cognitive defects)

describe 3 strategies that may decrease amyloid load in human and mouse model of AD

1. inhibit gamma secretase production and can prevent formation of AB plaques 2. use antibodies to block function of AB 3. use degrading enzymes to rid of AB plaques (insulin degrading enzymes) 4. put in animal in stress free and enriched environment (running) 5. block aggregation of AB

if you suspect that a new gene named INANYCASE plays a role in stress and anxiety, list 4 approaches to test for this possibility

1. knockout in mouse and run through anxiety tests 2. over express gene and then see what happens 3. see if upregulation of gene in mRNA levels or protein expressing using normal and abnormal mouse 4. at cellular level; we know HT92 cell line so can manipulate and test physiology to study action potentials

describe 3 experiments in mice and results to support the hypothesis that this gene (expressed in interneurons and pyramidal neurons of the prefrontal cortex) plays an important role in the neonatal stage for schizophrenia

1. knockout mice for interneurons and pyramidal neurons and use specific markers for these 2 areas and do an immunoassay to confirm the knocout and then study the connective patterns 2. afterwards want to run a behavior test (startle chamber to test for sensory-motor gating) or maze to test for (function and memory) maybe do a pre-pulse testing; lastly operant chamber to see for impuslivity control) 3. repeat this procedures for child, adolescent, and adult stages and see where the circuitry occurs

describe 3 negative effects of AB on the nervous system

1. neuronal cell death 2. neurotransmission defect 3. synaptics damage 4. inflammation 5. cognitive and behavior abnormalities

3 causes for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE)

1. neuronal degeneration in regions of hippocampus 2. gliosis (proliferation of microglial and reactive astrocytes that release trophic factors to the CNS); gliosis linked to excessive glutamate release which is linked to hyper-excitability of neurons. 3. mossy fiber sprouting

list 3 lines of evidence supporting that the tau protein gene plays a role in AD

1. physical restrain stress induces phosphorylation of tau 2. repeated stress results tau aggregates which turns into tangled filaments. this results in chronic elevation and reduced solubility of phosphorylated tau 3. reducing endogenous tau ameliorates amyloid B induced deficits in AD mouse model

name 3 different cell types in a neurogenic niche of the dentate gyrus and their relationship

1. pyramidal basket cells 2. mossy cells 3. granule cells

Down Syndrome is

A. caused non-disjunction B. father has balanced translocation of chromosome 21 to chromosome 4. so children will have 2 normal copies of 21 but abnormal chromosome 4

CJD is transmitted/inherited how

A. inherited B. acquired by eating mad cows C. can be acquired through organ transplants D. occurs sporadically E. ALL OF THE ABOVE

list 3 neurological disease caused by protein misfolding

ALS (mutation in SOD1), Huntington's Disease (alpha deposition of Lewy Bodies) Alzheimer's Disease, CJD (PRP)

describe the proteolytic process to generate AB. diagram may help

APP is generated into protein fragments first by B-secretatse and then by gamma-secretaset that cleaves into AB40 and AB42. an accumulation of AB42 leads to senile plaques that is correlated with dementia

can you name a genetic risk factor for AD

ApOE4 (especially if homozygous) , presenillin gene, APP mutation,

name 2 neuropathological hallmarks for AD and in what parts of the brain?

B-amyloid plaques found extracellular and between neurons Tangles are found intracellular

Why might drugs that block plaque formation in AD be helpful for treating DS?

DS is associated with senile plaque formation B-amyloid on chromosome 21

DSCR1 stands for

Down Syndrome Critical Region 1

T/F Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome adults who are matched on age andIQ do not show significant differences in language abilities

FALSE

T/F chromosome 21 is the largest human chromosome, which is why it fails to segregate properly during meiosis and causes Down Syndrome

FALSE

T/F the central nervous system intrinsically supports regeneration in adult mammals

FALSE

T/F serotonin re-uptake inhibitor decrease available levels of serotonin

FALSE (it increases serotonin)

in the PTEN knockout paper: PTEN mutation is known to ameliorate epileptogenesis (T/F)

FALSE (it induces epileptic)

in the SCI paper: neutralizing CSPG function failed to restore behavior recovery (T/F)

FALSE (saw partial recovery which is still an improvement)

T/F like most infectious agents, prions trigger neurological disease quickly and trigger a strong immune response that leads to secondary spongiform enncephalitis

FALSE it is slow and does not trigger immune response

T/F Dyrk1a is downregulated in DS

FALSE more Dyrk1a so more REST degraded (less transcriptional inhibition of neuronal genes) which leads to neurodegeneration, synapse formation

T/F valium decrease GABA binding affinity to its receptor

FALSE. drug used to increase GABA binding in anxiety

chromosome 21 is the largest and therefore more prone meiotic defects

FALSE. one of the smallest chromosome

T/F the drug GSK2606414 decrease the prion protein to treat prion-infected mice

FALSE. saw no changes in prion levels

T/F methamphetamine abusers have significant increase in dopamine transporters?

FALSE. see significant reduction in dopamine transporters

T/F compensatory sprouting is defined as re-growth of the transected axon

FALSE. sprouting is growth of axons from uninjured parental axon/ preserved axons

T/F WS good with visual-spatial tasks

FALSE. they pay attention to details and faces

T/F fCJD is caused by mutations in CJD

FALSE. this is familial PrP

T/F CPEB misfolding causes CJD

FALSE; CPEB is linked to plasticity and learning not related to CJD uses prion mechanism

Name 2 genes of chromosome 7q11.23 that is deleted in William Syndrome

Lim1 kinase, CLIP-115, ELN (elastin)

RMOR mice and their response to morphine

MOR (they're knock IN mice that express a mutant RECYCLING MOR) results showed less tolerance and dependence but still outstanding analgesic relief. also they were better at resensitiziaton so this may reduce the effects of addiction.

spine morphology of cortical neurons indicate there is more or less inhibitory input

MORE inhibitory

in the prion paper: what is the molecular target of the drug GSK2606414 used to treat Prion infected mice?

PERK (protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase)

PPI

PPI is a neurological phenomenon in which a weaker prepulse inhibits the reaction of an organism to a subsequent strong startling stimulus or (pulse). thought to be impaired in schizophrenia. (preceding pre-pulse inhibits startle response)

Transmissible spongiform encephalitis (TSE) is spread by

PRPsC protein which is more resistant to proteases

what proteins are involved at the plasma membrane of the syanptic zones

SNARE proteins, SNAP-25, and the SM protein Munc18. RIM proteins are central organizers in synaptic vesicle docking and priming, recruiting Ca2+ channels to active zones, and short term plasticity of neurotransmitter release

CJD is 85% sporadic and 15% inherited

TRUE

T/F 30% of epileptic patients are drug resistant?

TRUE

T/F NFAT is a transcsription factor thought to control gene expression for synapse

TRUE

T/F Older parents are more likely to have children with DS

TRUE

T/F WS showed impaired intelligence but strength in language

TRUE

T/F compared to the CNS, the PNS is permissive for regeneration

TRUE

T/F many children outgrow epilepsy with age

TRUE

T/F reduced PPI is a sign of increased schizophrenia-like behavior

TRUE

in the PTEN knockout paper: neurons were hyperactive due to increased excitatory synaptogenesis (T/F)

TRUE

in the SCI paper: CSPG is an extrinsic inhibitory factor that represses axon regeneration (T/F)

TRUE

T/F DSCR1 is an inhibitor of the calcineurin phosphatase with controls gene regulation associated with synapse formation

TRUE. calcineurin controls NFAT

T/F monamine oxidase inhibitor is to increase available levels of serotonin

TRUE. it prevents monoamine oxidase from removing dopamine and serotonin

T/F immature GABA receptors encourage cell depolarization

TRUE. opposite for adults

T/F hypothesis on memory is stored by strengthening synapses using protein conformation switch built into CPEB that gates local protein translation

TRUE. strengthens selective synpases

Tau and TBI

Tau is found to bind to tublin, the filaments of microtubles. they are enriched in axons and can get misfolded, hyperphosphorylated, oligomerize, and aggregate, and neurofibrillary tangles (hallmark of AD) can spread to other cells via trans-synaptic propagation during axonal shearing of TBI and fall off tublin.

T/F vCJD occurs when mad cow prions infect humans

True

describe focal seizure

abnormal activity in just 1 part of brain (lead to spontaneous tingling or altered awarness)

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

agitation, paranoid delusions (people feel conspired against), hallucinations

alcohol and dopamine

alcohol leads to an increase in dopamine in the area of the reward pathway, which comprises of the nucleus accumbens, the VTA but we do not know the molecular level with mesolimb dopamine system

prolong use of canniboinoids causes what

amotivational symptom, congitive impariment, decreased metabolism

why is long-range CNS regeneration limited in adults

because of extrinsic factors (growth inhibitors that are present after injury) in CNS no macrophages to clear debris in comparison to PNS that does. and lack intrinsic factors, and inflammatory response

phencyclidine (angel dust)

blocks NMDA glutamate receptors

describe drug addiction

brain disease that produces profound modulation in behavior through compulsive and persistent drug abuse that negatively impacts their health, employment and family

name a phosphatase that uses NFAT as a substrate

calcineruin dephosphorylates NFAT-P to make it active (NFAT) its effect is to control synapse formation

positive effects of cortisol

carbohydrate and protein metabolism

describe the epileptic networks

concept that networks are recruited to or disengage to regions of the cortical and subcortical brain that activate and affects others. saw during an EEG recording with appearance of fast activity and then gradually slow down, and amplitude increases and activity becomes more rhythmic and synchronous. leading to imbalance of physiological networks

what are symptoms of TBI

confusion, blurred vision, mood changes, memory complaint, decline in attention

name descending pathway in which it crosses the midline to innervate the motor neurons on the contralateral side

corticospinal tract that connects the cortex to the spinal cord and crosses over at the medulla

why is TBI a major public health problem?

costs US $56 billion/year; 1.4 million experienced and many are still trying to cope with damage or need help

CLIP-115 and LIM1kinase suggests that underlying defects exists in _____

cytoskeletal organization. CLIP-115 associated with microtuble tips

in the anxiety paper: THP is normally released to decease/increase anxiety in adults

decrease anxiety in adults but in puberty release by stress to increase anxiety in mice

THP decreases/ increases outward Cl ion current from 4B2d GABA receptors

decreases outward Cl ion

which of the following treatments do support growth promotion after SCI ?

delivery of neurotrophic factors, treatment with Rho kinase inhibitors(neutralizing inhibitory factors), increasing cAMP signaling, modulation of oligodendrocytes ( NOT astrocytes) using IN-1 antibodies

models to help determine whether axons regenerate

do a spinal cord injury with a contusion, weight dropping to spinal cord. then do imagine to see anterograde or retrograde degeneration. electrophysiological tests for any synapse formation

what neurotransmitter is central to drug addiction

dopamine, because drugs can increase dopamine levels and exaggerate the effects altering the communication

Which neurotransmitters are involved in schizophrenia?

dopamine, glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine

describe how mu-opioid receptor (MOR) endocytosis affects drugs tolerance and dependence

drugs that promote endocytosis will have reduced liability tolerance and dependence because they closely resemble the endogenous ligands that are recycled and resensitized.

what are some long term problems with TBI?

early TBI may lead to AD onset, if damage to basal ganglia can develop PD, post traumatic dementia

fluid percussion injury (FPI)

established model of traumatic brain injury in mice which the fluid percussion device produces an injury through a craniotomy by applying a brief fluid pressure pulse on to the intact dura layer (this induces focal and diffused injury)

T/F Williams Syndrome is more common than Down Syndrome

false ! it is super rare

T/F all AD is caused by mutations in APP, tau, and presenillin genes ?

false, there are more than one mutation

Down syndrome has more or fewer dendritic spines

fewer but they are bigger

which neurotransmitter has been shown to target autoimmune conditions leading to schizophrenia symptoms

glutamate

regeneration

growth from injured axons or axonal branches (transfected axons), usually for longer distance over a logner period of time

sprouting

growth from unijured axons or axonal branches. usually for shorter disitance

William Syndrome is due to ?

haploinsufficiency

normal is 46 chromosome but with DS patients typically

have 47

list physical features associated with Williams Syndrome

heart defects, exaggerated elfin facial features, auditory sensitivities

repeated CB1 agnoist results in what?

high levels of dopamine release into the straitum and decrease Ach neurotransmission in the cortex and hippocampus. also we see an increase of endocannabinoids release into the striatum. it in turns exert hoemostatic control of cortical / subcortical DA balance.

What personality trait is most pronounced in Williams Syndrome

highly sociable

name 2 regions of the brain that are essential in learn and memory

hippocampus and amygdala

brain regions that play role in schizophrenia

hippocampus, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, entrohinal cortex, amygalda, substantia nigra, basal ganlia

what is HPA axis?

hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis

iCJD

if acquired through canablism, blood transfusions, surgerical procedures called (iatragenic )

negative effects of cortisol

immune suppression, hippocampus damage

what indicates increase anxiety for elevated plus maze

increase amount of time spent in dark sides rather than in the open arms

what indicates increase anxiety for light-dark box

increase amount of time spent in the dark and less in the bright compartment

how does spine morphology in DS lead to intelligence

increase in inhibitory input, so we see a shift in excitation vs inhibition. more inhibition in hippocampus means less synaptic plasticity, which ultimately means suppression of learning

cholinesterase inhibitors are to decrease/increase available levels of _____ at synaptic cleft

increase levels of acetylcholine at synaptic cleft

familial CJD

inherited mutation in PrP(sc) autosomal dominant and takes about 50 years to develop

describe diffuse axon injury

injury to axons that is more than shear and tear. it occurs as a secondary progressive alternations in cytoskeletal changes, axonal swelling, that corelates with memory deficits and impaired processing. occurs in 70% of moderate-severe TBI juries.

describe generalized seizures

involves all the brain; jerking and stiffening of muscles in arms and legs

describe transcranial magnetic stimulation

it a a non-invasive stimulation of the neurons in the brain by pulsing electromagnet. can be used as treatment by stimulating brain area or as a diagnostic tool to see the connection between the stimulation and the brain reaction

how is tumor related to epilepsy

it is one of the causes of epilepsy, along side with TBI (30-50% of patients with brain tumors present with seizures as the initial symptoms may be due to tumor cells themselves that create inadequate homeostasis or that it is compressing the normal tissue, which then becomes epileptongenic

opiod drugs and addiction

it is used to treat severe pain for acute post-surgical and chronic pain. most become dependent on them because tolerance goes up. opioid receptors are found in the membranes of the neuronal cells and when bound will get substantial GPCR desensitization and arrestin bindin but no endocytosis, which means it cannot be recycled and resensitized. therefore becomes addictive

name 3 ways to diagnose DS

karyotype, ultrasound, estriol, hCG

cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

lose association with objects and people, frequent jumbling of words like word salad, attention deficits, executive and working memory impairment

seizure symptoms

loss of consciousness or awareness, uncontrollably jerky movements of arms and legs, staring spell, temporary confusion

describe some treatments for epilepsy

medications and sometimes surgery may eliminate or reduce the frequency and intensity of seizures, however, there are side effects to drugs. prevention is more desirable. ancient herbal remedies relied on GABA receptor agonists to treat epilepsy

what drug is approved by FDA to treat AD to modulate synapse function through the glutamate NMDA receptor?

memantine drug and functions as an antagonist

what is the prognosis for TBI

more severe injury the longer the recovery period. recovery from diffuse axonal injury takes longer than recovery from focal contusions, disabilities can also depend on duration of coma (may cause problems in cognitive thinking and being light sensitive and such)

Down syndrome is commonly inherited from

mother

What distinguishes the replication of prion disease from other infectious disease?

no nucleic acids so no DNA for replication? see misfolding of PRP phenotype, no inflammation

PrPc

normal found in across evolution

what is analgesic tolerance

pain tolerance that is associated with opioids to decrease perception of pain and decrease reaction, which was a problem for addiction. but with the RMOR mouse it showed less tolerance

describe the different TBIs

penetrating is pierced or lodged object through skull that can lead to complications such as infection; while closed head injury is not penetrating and mechanism is a blow to the head through acceleration or de-acceleratioin accidents

convulsions

person's body shakes rapidly and uncontrollably (muscle contracts/ relax very quickly)

Wallerian degeneration

process in which nerve fibers are cut or crushed distal to site of impact which may result in neuronal death

features of DS

protruding tongue, AD (APP found on chromosome 21) , GI tract pathology, mental retardation, flat nasal bridge

gamma oscillations

range from 40-70Hz found within local cortical networks

theta oscillations

range from 5-10 Hz found for inter-brain region (long-range integration)

William syndrome

recognizes the details and draws out the Ys. are abstract and show disconnected drawing of pictures

what is RAVE

relative activity versus endocytosis (morphine has high RAVE) endorphines have lower RAVE

epilepsy

repeated seizures

clonic phase

rhythmic jerking/ muscle contractions of arms, face, neck

how are GABA receptors related to epilepsy?

saw receptor shift changes may be associated with epilpetogensis. Normally in young adults we see GABA receptors encourage cell depolarization, while GABA receptors in adult tends to hyperpolarize cells. However we see a switch in trauma patients, nerve transections, and oxygen deprivation (hyperpolarization to depolarization). think it serves as a now as a contributory factor the epileptic phenotype

PrPsc

scrapie form. misfolfed PrPc

Down Syndrome

sees the overall picture (gestalt) will draw D

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

social withdrawal, ambivalence, unchanging facial expression

two interneurons that play a role in schizophrenia

somatostatin (basket cells) and parvalbumin (chandelier cells)

what common histological feature is observed when looking at brain sections following prion-disease

spongiform enciphiletus

Anti-synaptiphysin (Syn) antibodies have been used to study neuropathy of AD. please describe what aspects of the NS anti-Syn antibody can asses and what is found in the AD brain

synaptiphysin at pre-synaptic nerve terminal (good indication of syanptic integrity) and can tell if neurotransmission if affected in AD then will have less expression compared to wild type by using immunoreactivity marker. In addition PSD 95 on post-synaptic terminal is also a maker. label both and we can see if there is a formation of synaptic structures

describe EEG

temporal measurement of voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic cements in neurons

describe the dopamine system and how it is affected in addiction

the mesocorticolimbic pathway is the dopaminergic projectiosn from VTA to nucleus accumbens (striatum) to prefrontal cortex

how are NMDAR and KAR related to epilepsy?

they are 2 of the 3 types of glutamate receptors. strong evidence that NMDAR involved in epileptogenesis (found them in epileptic tissues when upregulated the expression of NMDAR receptors. saw an association with KA receptors and mossy fiber sprouting (saw aberrant sprouts that showed increase in Ka receptor expressions

mechanism to williams

thought that there was a duplication in 2 regions of related genes and during base pairing will recombine and delete some parts of chromosome 7. about 28 genes deleted and elastin was one of them

Kuru is spread

through canabolism

FPI of 1.5 atm caused what?

transient motor coordination deficits (paw placement), significant spatial learning deficits, but it does not cause overt cell loss of dendritic damage, saw increase in Iba-1 and GFAPA immunoreactivity (neuroinflammation)

list 2 line of evidence that spongiform encephalitis is caused by infectious protein lacking nucleic acid genome

under UV rays no mutations, purified infections contained no nucleic acids, did a transgenic mouse with human PRP and saw spongiform, PRP knockout resistant to prion, prion was degraded by proteinases

how would determine if adult neurogenesis is impaired in a mouse model of AD?

use genetic markers that are specific and expressed during neuronal growth and when not impaired. we can use do IP injection ->BRDU staining; inject into any new cells and section the brain and count count the cells that are labeled with BRDU . we should lower numbers of BRDU because neuronal loss in AD (atrophy)

vCJD

variant cross species. (only from BSE lead to vCJD) not scrapie protein from sheep

list 2 cognitive strenghts in Williams Syndrome

very sociable, good facial recognition (more active area in brain called , fusiform area FFA) and has musical talent (but visuospatial scores are much lower and lower IQ than normal children)

Name one pioneering experiment that convincingly demonstrated that adult CNS myelin was inhibitory

x-irradiation, IN-1 antibodies study, sciatic nerve bridge study

risk groups and what are the main causes of TBI

young male adults (15-24); elderly of 75 years in both sexes. most accidents are form motor vehicle accidents account for 75 years and under; accidents and falls from 75 years and older

Down Syndrome is caused by

trisomy 21