BIPN 150 Final
Diagnosis of William Syndrome is typically based on genotyping to show what genetic change?
only 1 copy of ELN, heterozygote deletion on chromosome 7
What are some treatments for TBI
physical therapy, education on preventing future damages, CT scan to evaluate
what indicates increase anxiety for open field
decrease amount of time spent in the center of open field and will more likely be in the corner
amphetamine
dopamine
clozapine
dopamine
phenothiazines
dopamine
how does the dopamine system affect addiction
dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens is decreased in virtually all drug-dependent rodents as well as see morphological changes to the spiny neurons of the nucleus; therefore want more of the drug because they are "dopamine impoverished"
how is bovine spongiform encephalitis thought to be most commonly spread among animals
food supply used to feed cattle was contained was contaminated with scrapes and thought to transmit that way
describe Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
form of acquired brain injury when a sudden trauma (penetrating/ closed) causes damage to brain
where are CB1 (cannabinoid) receptors found?
found in glutamergic, dopaminergic, and cholinergic primary projection neuron and GABAergic interneurons
what were some axon responses to FPI TBI
functional impairments, including electrophysiological alterations in corpus collasum and deficits in spatial cognition without hippocampual cell death. both myelin and unmyelinated axons were measured and saw that there was NOT significant morphometric change in myelinate axons BUT saw a decrease in unmyelinated fiber density
tonic phase
generalized stiffening of body and limbs (back arched) which may cause patient tofall
what are 2 neuropathologies of Prion disease
1. neurodegeneration 2. spongiform encephalitis
the order of when spinal cord transfected
1. synaptic transmission off. 2. synpatic terminal degenerates (not getting information to terminal) 3. wallerian degeneration 4. myelin debris 5. microglia infiltrate to clean up and immune react 6. chromatolysis (disintegration of Nissl bodies) 7. retraction of synaptic terminal at nearby (post and pre-synaptic)
3 tests to evaluate anxiety-like behavior
1.elevated plus maze 2. light-dark box 3. open field
what chromosome is APP encoded
21
xanomeline
Acetylcholine
which of the following is not an inhibitor derived from myelin? a. NOGO b. CSPG c. MAG d. OMpg
CSPG is not derived from myelin. present at glial scarring
name 3 imaging techniques used for epilepsy
MRI, PET, functionalMRI, DWI (diffused weighted imaging)
Hereditary CJD arises due to a mutation in what gene?
PrP
T/F Down Syndrome affects more genes
TRUE about 400 more genes affected
is addiction a developmental disease?
YES, typically begins in childhood and and adolescence when our decision making is not clear yet (prefrontal cortex still developing)
FPI of 1.0 atm caused what?
it did not cause learning or memory dysfunction after injury. did similar to control in morris water maze
REST in DS
it is controlled by DYRK1A. normally Dyrk1a is controlled by REST. but in DS it is upregulated so that REST gets phosphorylated and ubiquitin groups are added so that proteins are targeted to proteosome breakdown. In addition any phosphorylated REST will be degraded by DYSKR1a, which means less transcriptional inhibition of DSYRK1a. this deregulation leads to neurodegenration
consequences of spinal cord injury
loss of voluntary movements, balance, control of breathing
what are 2 distinct pathways that may account for increase in tau phosphorylation?
-phosphorylation at Ser and Thr sites by kinases: glycogen synthase -3Beta, Cdk5, Akt. -acute stress -> CRFR1 (positively induces) CDK -> leads to phosphorylation and acute stress -> CRFR2 (negatively inhibits) JNK pathway-> phosphorylation of tau
what are the key mediators of HPA axis?
1. CRH 2. ACTH. 3. cotisol
you find a gene named iDegrade, which encodes one of the most potent molecules to increase metabolism of amyloid in an assay. List 3 potential experiments if iDegrade may be beneficial to a mouse model of AD
1. ChR2 to use light to specifically activate iDegrade gene or Halorhodopsin to specifically silence iDegrade and improve function 2.create transgenic mouse by knockout in iDegrade and show iDegrade mutant mice display increase endogenous AB levels 3. can over express iDegrade in mouse and if supposedly reduces AB concentration, observe behavior 4. do in vitro models expressing iDegrade reduced AB levels on plate and study electrophysiology and improvment in cognitive functions compared to wild type cell cultures
name 3 neuronal structures that are essential in anxiety
1. amygdala 2. hippocampus 3. hypothalamus
name 3 hormones or neurotranmistters that are essential in stress/anxiety response
1. cortisol 2. ACTH 3. epinephrine
what are 2 neurogenic brain regions where adult neurogenesis occurs?
1. dentate gyrus of hippocampus (subgranual zone and subventricular zone) 2. olfactory bulb
how to target and help prion disease
1. drugs to make prpc resistant to folding into prpsc 2. drugs to unfold prpsc 3. drugs to make prpsc more easily targeted for degradation and clearance
list 3 lines of evidence support that B-amyloid peptide plays a casual role in AD
1. human mutation in APP gene associated with increase in AB levels in AD 2. human mutation in genes important for processing app correlated with increase in AB levels 3. overexpressing mutated human APP gene will result in AD phenotype (neuropathological and cognitive defects)
describe 3 strategies that may decrease amyloid load in human and mouse model of AD
1. inhibit gamma secretase production and can prevent formation of AB plaques 2. use antibodies to block function of AB 3. use degrading enzymes to rid of AB plaques (insulin degrading enzymes) 4. put in animal in stress free and enriched environment (running) 5. block aggregation of AB
if you suspect that a new gene named INANYCASE plays a role in stress and anxiety, list 4 approaches to test for this possibility
1. knockout in mouse and run through anxiety tests 2. over express gene and then see what happens 3. see if upregulation of gene in mRNA levels or protein expressing using normal and abnormal mouse 4. at cellular level; we know HT92 cell line so can manipulate and test physiology to study action potentials
describe 3 experiments in mice and results to support the hypothesis that this gene (expressed in interneurons and pyramidal neurons of the prefrontal cortex) plays an important role in the neonatal stage for schizophrenia
1. knockout mice for interneurons and pyramidal neurons and use specific markers for these 2 areas and do an immunoassay to confirm the knocout and then study the connective patterns 2. afterwards want to run a behavior test (startle chamber to test for sensory-motor gating) or maze to test for (function and memory) maybe do a pre-pulse testing; lastly operant chamber to see for impuslivity control) 3. repeat this procedures for child, adolescent, and adult stages and see where the circuitry occurs
describe 3 negative effects of AB on the nervous system
1. neuronal cell death 2. neurotransmission defect 3. synaptics damage 4. inflammation 5. cognitive and behavior abnormalities
3 causes for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE)
1. neuronal degeneration in regions of hippocampus 2. gliosis (proliferation of microglial and reactive astrocytes that release trophic factors to the CNS); gliosis linked to excessive glutamate release which is linked to hyper-excitability of neurons. 3. mossy fiber sprouting
list 3 lines of evidence supporting that the tau protein gene plays a role in AD
1. physical restrain stress induces phosphorylation of tau 2. repeated stress results tau aggregates which turns into tangled filaments. this results in chronic elevation and reduced solubility of phosphorylated tau 3. reducing endogenous tau ameliorates amyloid B induced deficits in AD mouse model
name 3 different cell types in a neurogenic niche of the dentate gyrus and their relationship
1. pyramidal basket cells 2. mossy cells 3. granule cells
Down Syndrome is
A. caused non-disjunction B. father has balanced translocation of chromosome 21 to chromosome 4. so children will have 2 normal copies of 21 but abnormal chromosome 4
CJD is transmitted/inherited how
A. inherited B. acquired by eating mad cows C. can be acquired through organ transplants D. occurs sporadically E. ALL OF THE ABOVE
list 3 neurological disease caused by protein misfolding
ALS (mutation in SOD1), Huntington's Disease (alpha deposition of Lewy Bodies) Alzheimer's Disease, CJD (PRP)
describe the proteolytic process to generate AB. diagram may help
APP is generated into protein fragments first by B-secretatse and then by gamma-secretaset that cleaves into AB40 and AB42. an accumulation of AB42 leads to senile plaques that is correlated with dementia
can you name a genetic risk factor for AD
ApOE4 (especially if homozygous) , presenillin gene, APP mutation,
name 2 neuropathological hallmarks for AD and in what parts of the brain?
B-amyloid plaques found extracellular and between neurons Tangles are found intracellular
Why might drugs that block plaque formation in AD be helpful for treating DS?
DS is associated with senile plaque formation B-amyloid on chromosome 21
DSCR1 stands for
Down Syndrome Critical Region 1
T/F Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome adults who are matched on age andIQ do not show significant differences in language abilities
FALSE
T/F chromosome 21 is the largest human chromosome, which is why it fails to segregate properly during meiosis and causes Down Syndrome
FALSE
T/F the central nervous system intrinsically supports regeneration in adult mammals
FALSE
T/F serotonin re-uptake inhibitor decrease available levels of serotonin
FALSE (it increases serotonin)
in the PTEN knockout paper: PTEN mutation is known to ameliorate epileptogenesis (T/F)
FALSE (it induces epileptic)
in the SCI paper: neutralizing CSPG function failed to restore behavior recovery (T/F)
FALSE (saw partial recovery which is still an improvement)
T/F like most infectious agents, prions trigger neurological disease quickly and trigger a strong immune response that leads to secondary spongiform enncephalitis
FALSE it is slow and does not trigger immune response
T/F Dyrk1a is downregulated in DS
FALSE more Dyrk1a so more REST degraded (less transcriptional inhibition of neuronal genes) which leads to neurodegeneration, synapse formation
T/F valium decrease GABA binding affinity to its receptor
FALSE. drug used to increase GABA binding in anxiety
chromosome 21 is the largest and therefore more prone meiotic defects
FALSE. one of the smallest chromosome
T/F the drug GSK2606414 decrease the prion protein to treat prion-infected mice
FALSE. saw no changes in prion levels
T/F methamphetamine abusers have significant increase in dopamine transporters?
FALSE. see significant reduction in dopamine transporters
T/F compensatory sprouting is defined as re-growth of the transected axon
FALSE. sprouting is growth of axons from uninjured parental axon/ preserved axons
T/F WS good with visual-spatial tasks
FALSE. they pay attention to details and faces
T/F fCJD is caused by mutations in CJD
FALSE. this is familial PrP
T/F CPEB misfolding causes CJD
FALSE; CPEB is linked to plasticity and learning not related to CJD uses prion mechanism
Name 2 genes of chromosome 7q11.23 that is deleted in William Syndrome
Lim1 kinase, CLIP-115, ELN (elastin)
RMOR mice and their response to morphine
MOR (they're knock IN mice that express a mutant RECYCLING MOR) results showed less tolerance and dependence but still outstanding analgesic relief. also they were better at resensitiziaton so this may reduce the effects of addiction.
spine morphology of cortical neurons indicate there is more or less inhibitory input
MORE inhibitory
in the prion paper: what is the molecular target of the drug GSK2606414 used to treat Prion infected mice?
PERK (protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase)
PPI
PPI is a neurological phenomenon in which a weaker prepulse inhibits the reaction of an organism to a subsequent strong startling stimulus or (pulse). thought to be impaired in schizophrenia. (preceding pre-pulse inhibits startle response)
Transmissible spongiform encephalitis (TSE) is spread by
PRPsC protein which is more resistant to proteases
what proteins are involved at the plasma membrane of the syanptic zones
SNARE proteins, SNAP-25, and the SM protein Munc18. RIM proteins are central organizers in synaptic vesicle docking and priming, recruiting Ca2+ channels to active zones, and short term plasticity of neurotransmitter release
CJD is 85% sporadic and 15% inherited
TRUE
T/F 30% of epileptic patients are drug resistant?
TRUE
T/F NFAT is a transcsription factor thought to control gene expression for synapse
TRUE
T/F Older parents are more likely to have children with DS
TRUE
T/F WS showed impaired intelligence but strength in language
TRUE
T/F compared to the CNS, the PNS is permissive for regeneration
TRUE
T/F many children outgrow epilepsy with age
TRUE
T/F reduced PPI is a sign of increased schizophrenia-like behavior
TRUE
in the PTEN knockout paper: neurons were hyperactive due to increased excitatory synaptogenesis (T/F)
TRUE
in the SCI paper: CSPG is an extrinsic inhibitory factor that represses axon regeneration (T/F)
TRUE
T/F DSCR1 is an inhibitor of the calcineurin phosphatase with controls gene regulation associated with synapse formation
TRUE. calcineurin controls NFAT
T/F monamine oxidase inhibitor is to increase available levels of serotonin
TRUE. it prevents monoamine oxidase from removing dopamine and serotonin
T/F immature GABA receptors encourage cell depolarization
TRUE. opposite for adults
T/F hypothesis on memory is stored by strengthening synapses using protein conformation switch built into CPEB that gates local protein translation
TRUE. strengthens selective synpases
Tau and TBI
Tau is found to bind to tublin, the filaments of microtubles. they are enriched in axons and can get misfolded, hyperphosphorylated, oligomerize, and aggregate, and neurofibrillary tangles (hallmark of AD) can spread to other cells via trans-synaptic propagation during axonal shearing of TBI and fall off tublin.
T/F vCJD occurs when mad cow prions infect humans
True
describe focal seizure
abnormal activity in just 1 part of brain (lead to spontaneous tingling or altered awarness)
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
agitation, paranoid delusions (people feel conspired against), hallucinations
alcohol and dopamine
alcohol leads to an increase in dopamine in the area of the reward pathway, which comprises of the nucleus accumbens, the VTA but we do not know the molecular level with mesolimb dopamine system
prolong use of canniboinoids causes what
amotivational symptom, congitive impariment, decreased metabolism
why is long-range CNS regeneration limited in adults
because of extrinsic factors (growth inhibitors that are present after injury) in CNS no macrophages to clear debris in comparison to PNS that does. and lack intrinsic factors, and inflammatory response
phencyclidine (angel dust)
blocks NMDA glutamate receptors
describe drug addiction
brain disease that produces profound modulation in behavior through compulsive and persistent drug abuse that negatively impacts their health, employment and family
name a phosphatase that uses NFAT as a substrate
calcineruin dephosphorylates NFAT-P to make it active (NFAT) its effect is to control synapse formation
positive effects of cortisol
carbohydrate and protein metabolism
describe the epileptic networks
concept that networks are recruited to or disengage to regions of the cortical and subcortical brain that activate and affects others. saw during an EEG recording with appearance of fast activity and then gradually slow down, and amplitude increases and activity becomes more rhythmic and synchronous. leading to imbalance of physiological networks
what are symptoms of TBI
confusion, blurred vision, mood changes, memory complaint, decline in attention
name descending pathway in which it crosses the midline to innervate the motor neurons on the contralateral side
corticospinal tract that connects the cortex to the spinal cord and crosses over at the medulla
why is TBI a major public health problem?
costs US $56 billion/year; 1.4 million experienced and many are still trying to cope with damage or need help
CLIP-115 and LIM1kinase suggests that underlying defects exists in _____
cytoskeletal organization. CLIP-115 associated with microtuble tips
in the anxiety paper: THP is normally released to decease/increase anxiety in adults
decrease anxiety in adults but in puberty release by stress to increase anxiety in mice
THP decreases/ increases outward Cl ion current from 4B2d GABA receptors
decreases outward Cl ion
which of the following treatments do support growth promotion after SCI ?
delivery of neurotrophic factors, treatment with Rho kinase inhibitors(neutralizing inhibitory factors), increasing cAMP signaling, modulation of oligodendrocytes ( NOT astrocytes) using IN-1 antibodies
models to help determine whether axons regenerate
do a spinal cord injury with a contusion, weight dropping to spinal cord. then do imagine to see anterograde or retrograde degeneration. electrophysiological tests for any synapse formation
what neurotransmitter is central to drug addiction
dopamine, because drugs can increase dopamine levels and exaggerate the effects altering the communication
Which neurotransmitters are involved in schizophrenia?
dopamine, glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine
describe how mu-opioid receptor (MOR) endocytosis affects drugs tolerance and dependence
drugs that promote endocytosis will have reduced liability tolerance and dependence because they closely resemble the endogenous ligands that are recycled and resensitized.
what are some long term problems with TBI?
early TBI may lead to AD onset, if damage to basal ganglia can develop PD, post traumatic dementia
fluid percussion injury (FPI)
established model of traumatic brain injury in mice which the fluid percussion device produces an injury through a craniotomy by applying a brief fluid pressure pulse on to the intact dura layer (this induces focal and diffused injury)
T/F Williams Syndrome is more common than Down Syndrome
false ! it is super rare
T/F all AD is caused by mutations in APP, tau, and presenillin genes ?
false, there are more than one mutation
Down syndrome has more or fewer dendritic spines
fewer but they are bigger
which neurotransmitter has been shown to target autoimmune conditions leading to schizophrenia symptoms
glutamate
regeneration
growth from injured axons or axonal branches (transfected axons), usually for longer distance over a logner period of time
sprouting
growth from unijured axons or axonal branches. usually for shorter disitance
William Syndrome is due to ?
haploinsufficiency
normal is 46 chromosome but with DS patients typically
have 47
list physical features associated with Williams Syndrome
heart defects, exaggerated elfin facial features, auditory sensitivities
repeated CB1 agnoist results in what?
high levels of dopamine release into the straitum and decrease Ach neurotransmission in the cortex and hippocampus. also we see an increase of endocannabinoids release into the striatum. it in turns exert hoemostatic control of cortical / subcortical DA balance.
What personality trait is most pronounced in Williams Syndrome
highly sociable
name 2 regions of the brain that are essential in learn and memory
hippocampus and amygdala
brain regions that play role in schizophrenia
hippocampus, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, entrohinal cortex, amygalda, substantia nigra, basal ganlia
what is HPA axis?
hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis
iCJD
if acquired through canablism, blood transfusions, surgerical procedures called (iatragenic )
negative effects of cortisol
immune suppression, hippocampus damage
what indicates increase anxiety for elevated plus maze
increase amount of time spent in dark sides rather than in the open arms
what indicates increase anxiety for light-dark box
increase amount of time spent in the dark and less in the bright compartment
how does spine morphology in DS lead to intelligence
increase in inhibitory input, so we see a shift in excitation vs inhibition. more inhibition in hippocampus means less synaptic plasticity, which ultimately means suppression of learning
cholinesterase inhibitors are to decrease/increase available levels of _____ at synaptic cleft
increase levels of acetylcholine at synaptic cleft
familial CJD
inherited mutation in PrP(sc) autosomal dominant and takes about 50 years to develop
describe diffuse axon injury
injury to axons that is more than shear and tear. it occurs as a secondary progressive alternations in cytoskeletal changes, axonal swelling, that corelates with memory deficits and impaired processing. occurs in 70% of moderate-severe TBI juries.
describe generalized seizures
involves all the brain; jerking and stiffening of muscles in arms and legs
describe transcranial magnetic stimulation
it a a non-invasive stimulation of the neurons in the brain by pulsing electromagnet. can be used as treatment by stimulating brain area or as a diagnostic tool to see the connection between the stimulation and the brain reaction
how is tumor related to epilepsy
it is one of the causes of epilepsy, along side with TBI (30-50% of patients with brain tumors present with seizures as the initial symptoms may be due to tumor cells themselves that create inadequate homeostasis or that it is compressing the normal tissue, which then becomes epileptongenic
opiod drugs and addiction
it is used to treat severe pain for acute post-surgical and chronic pain. most become dependent on them because tolerance goes up. opioid receptors are found in the membranes of the neuronal cells and when bound will get substantial GPCR desensitization and arrestin bindin but no endocytosis, which means it cannot be recycled and resensitized. therefore becomes addictive
name 3 ways to diagnose DS
karyotype, ultrasound, estriol, hCG
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
lose association with objects and people, frequent jumbling of words like word salad, attention deficits, executive and working memory impairment
seizure symptoms
loss of consciousness or awareness, uncontrollably jerky movements of arms and legs, staring spell, temporary confusion
describe some treatments for epilepsy
medications and sometimes surgery may eliminate or reduce the frequency and intensity of seizures, however, there are side effects to drugs. prevention is more desirable. ancient herbal remedies relied on GABA receptor agonists to treat epilepsy
what drug is approved by FDA to treat AD to modulate synapse function through the glutamate NMDA receptor?
memantine drug and functions as an antagonist
what is the prognosis for TBI
more severe injury the longer the recovery period. recovery from diffuse axonal injury takes longer than recovery from focal contusions, disabilities can also depend on duration of coma (may cause problems in cognitive thinking and being light sensitive and such)
Down syndrome is commonly inherited from
mother
What distinguishes the replication of prion disease from other infectious disease?
no nucleic acids so no DNA for replication? see misfolding of PRP phenotype, no inflammation
PrPc
normal found in across evolution
what is analgesic tolerance
pain tolerance that is associated with opioids to decrease perception of pain and decrease reaction, which was a problem for addiction. but with the RMOR mouse it showed less tolerance
describe the different TBIs
penetrating is pierced or lodged object through skull that can lead to complications such as infection; while closed head injury is not penetrating and mechanism is a blow to the head through acceleration or de-acceleratioin accidents
convulsions
person's body shakes rapidly and uncontrollably (muscle contracts/ relax very quickly)
Wallerian degeneration
process in which nerve fibers are cut or crushed distal to site of impact which may result in neuronal death
features of DS
protruding tongue, AD (APP found on chromosome 21) , GI tract pathology, mental retardation, flat nasal bridge
gamma oscillations
range from 40-70Hz found within local cortical networks
theta oscillations
range from 5-10 Hz found for inter-brain region (long-range integration)
William syndrome
recognizes the details and draws out the Ys. are abstract and show disconnected drawing of pictures
what is RAVE
relative activity versus endocytosis (morphine has high RAVE) endorphines have lower RAVE
epilepsy
repeated seizures
clonic phase
rhythmic jerking/ muscle contractions of arms, face, neck
how are GABA receptors related to epilepsy?
saw receptor shift changes may be associated with epilpetogensis. Normally in young adults we see GABA receptors encourage cell depolarization, while GABA receptors in adult tends to hyperpolarize cells. However we see a switch in trauma patients, nerve transections, and oxygen deprivation (hyperpolarization to depolarization). think it serves as a now as a contributory factor the epileptic phenotype
PrPsc
scrapie form. misfolfed PrPc
Down Syndrome
sees the overall picture (gestalt) will draw D
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
social withdrawal, ambivalence, unchanging facial expression
two interneurons that play a role in schizophrenia
somatostatin (basket cells) and parvalbumin (chandelier cells)
what common histological feature is observed when looking at brain sections following prion-disease
spongiform enciphiletus
Anti-synaptiphysin (Syn) antibodies have been used to study neuropathy of AD. please describe what aspects of the NS anti-Syn antibody can asses and what is found in the AD brain
synaptiphysin at pre-synaptic nerve terminal (good indication of syanptic integrity) and can tell if neurotransmission if affected in AD then will have less expression compared to wild type by using immunoreactivity marker. In addition PSD 95 on post-synaptic terminal is also a maker. label both and we can see if there is a formation of synaptic structures
describe EEG
temporal measurement of voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic cements in neurons
describe the dopamine system and how it is affected in addiction
the mesocorticolimbic pathway is the dopaminergic projectiosn from VTA to nucleus accumbens (striatum) to prefrontal cortex
how are NMDAR and KAR related to epilepsy?
they are 2 of the 3 types of glutamate receptors. strong evidence that NMDAR involved in epileptogenesis (found them in epileptic tissues when upregulated the expression of NMDAR receptors. saw an association with KA receptors and mossy fiber sprouting (saw aberrant sprouts that showed increase in Ka receptor expressions
mechanism to williams
thought that there was a duplication in 2 regions of related genes and during base pairing will recombine and delete some parts of chromosome 7. about 28 genes deleted and elastin was one of them
Kuru is spread
through canabolism
FPI of 1.5 atm caused what?
transient motor coordination deficits (paw placement), significant spatial learning deficits, but it does not cause overt cell loss of dendritic damage, saw increase in Iba-1 and GFAPA immunoreactivity (neuroinflammation)
list 2 line of evidence that spongiform encephalitis is caused by infectious protein lacking nucleic acid genome
under UV rays no mutations, purified infections contained no nucleic acids, did a transgenic mouse with human PRP and saw spongiform, PRP knockout resistant to prion, prion was degraded by proteinases
how would determine if adult neurogenesis is impaired in a mouse model of AD?
use genetic markers that are specific and expressed during neuronal growth and when not impaired. we can use do IP injection ->BRDU staining; inject into any new cells and section the brain and count count the cells that are labeled with BRDU . we should lower numbers of BRDU because neuronal loss in AD (atrophy)
vCJD
variant cross species. (only from BSE lead to vCJD) not scrapie protein from sheep
list 2 cognitive strenghts in Williams Syndrome
very sociable, good facial recognition (more active area in brain called , fusiform area FFA) and has musical talent (but visuospatial scores are much lower and lower IQ than normal children)
Name one pioneering experiment that convincingly demonstrated that adult CNS myelin was inhibitory
x-irradiation, IN-1 antibodies study, sciatic nerve bridge study
risk groups and what are the main causes of TBI
young male adults (15-24); elderly of 75 years in both sexes. most accidents are form motor vehicle accidents account for 75 years and under; accidents and falls from 75 years and older
Down Syndrome is caused by
trisomy 21