BMSP 2136 Exam 4
What is the exocrine function of the pancreas?
enzymes secreted primarily by clusters of acinar cells. These enzymes are released into ducts of the pancreas that empty into the alimentary canal, where they help with digestion
Which of the following is NOT a component of the filtration membrane?
epithelial cells of the glomerular capsule
Saliva is produced by all of the following glands except __________.
esophageal glands
Which of the following is an organ of the alimentary canal?
esophagus
Which of the following organs is part of the alimentary canal?
esophagus
Molecules that can only be obtained from the diet are called __________.
essential nutrients
What is a renal mechanism that raises systemic blood pressure?
increase secretion of renin by the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells
Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can do all of the following, except __________.
increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can do all of the following, EXCEPT:
increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
A meal high in protein will cause __________.
increased gastrin release
Which hormone stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering the concentration of glucose in the blood?
insulin
Which of the following tongue papillae do NOT contain taste buds?
filiform
What is the basic function of the kidney?
filter the blood to remove metabolic wastes and then modify the resulting fluid, which allows these organs to maintain fluid, electrolyte, acid-base, and blood pressure homeostasis
Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the digestive system?
filtration
Describe the permeability of the descending limb of the nephron loop to water and solutes. How does this impact the osmolarity of the filtrate?
freely permeable to water, but much less permeable to solutes such as sodium and chloride ions. So water can move out of the thin descending limb cells by osmosis, but few solutes follow osmolarity of the filtrate to increase as it passes down the descending limb and rounds the bend of the loop
Reabsorption moves water and solutes:
from filtrate to blood
nephron
functional units of the kidney—each one is capable of filtering the blood and producing urine
A substance that is reduced __________.
gains electrons
When a substance or molecule is reduced it __________.
gains electrons
Identify the structure labeled with the question mark.
gallbladder
Hormone produced by the duodenum to reduce acid secretion by the stomach
gastric-inhibitory peptide (GIP)
Hormone produced by an enteroendocrine cell of the stomach called a G cell
gastrin
What is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?
gastrin
As a bolus moves down the esophagus, its movement into the stomach is regulated by the __________.
gastroesophageal sphincter
The three layers of the filtration membrane, from deep to superficial, are:
glomerular capillaries, basal lamina, and podocytes.
Filtered fluid leaving the glomerular capillaries immediately enters the:
glomerular capsule
Glomerular filtrate is produced as a result of:
glomerular hydrostatic pressure
The main force that promotes filtration in a nephron is:
glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP).
Filtration happens at the:
glomerulus
A pancreatic hormone that is released in response to a decreasing blood glucose concentration
glucagon
The liver carries out all of the following functions except __________.
glucagon secretion
The synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules such as glycerol or certain amino acids
gluconeogenesis
If there was no reabsorption in the proximal tubule, which of the following useful substances would be lost in urine:
glucose
structure of a triglyceride.
glycerol + 3 fatty acids
Excess dietary proteins may become all of the following EXCEPT:
glycerol.
The process of storing glucose as glycogen is known as __________.
glycogenesis
The process that stores excess glucose in skeletal muscle and hepatocytes
glycogenesis
The process of storing glucose as glycogen is known as:
glycogenesis.
The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose molecules
glycogenolysis
A series of reactions in the cytosol that split glucose
glycolysis
What is a series of 10 anaerobic reactions that occur in the cytosol, during which glucose is split and small amounts of ATP and NADH are generated?
glycolysis
Which of the following processes takes place in the cytosol of a eukaryotic cell?
glycolysis
Select the correct sequence of steps as energy is extracted from glucose during cellular respiration.
glycolysis → acetyl CoA → citric acid cycle → electron transport chain
What cells produce mucus that coat the stomach?
goblet cells
The _____ covers the abdominal organs like an apron.
greater omentum
Select the two factors on which body mass index depends.
height and weight
Select the two factors upon which body mass index depends.
height and weight
The main function of the tongue during digestion is to __________.
help turn food into a bolus and push the bolus posteriorly during swallowing
Which of the following functions is not associated with the kidneys?
hematopoiesis
What does each of these vessels carry? hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, hepatic vein.
hepatic artery, which brings oxygen- rich blood to the liver hepatic portal vein, which brings nutrient-rich hepatic veins, which receive blood from the sinusoids fed by both the hepatic arteries and the hepatic portal vein, and drain into the inferior vena cava
The digestive organs arterial blood supply does not come from the ______.
hepatic portal vein
The portal triad of the liver contains all the following structures except __________.
hepatic sinusoids
What cells compose the liver lobules?
hepatocytes
The pancreatic duct and the common bile duct unite to enter the duodenum at the ____.
hepatopancreatic ampulla
Which sphincter controls release of bile into the duodenum?
hepatopancreatic sphincter
Which of the following food sources is a poor source of minerals?
high-fat foods
The renal artery, renal vein, renal nerves, and ureter all enter and exit through the _____.
hilum
Name and label the opening on the medial surface of the kidney. What enters and exits the kidneys here?
hilum (HY-lum), through which the renal artery, renal vein,renal nerves, and ureter enter and exit the kidney
The indentation on the medial surface of the kidney is the:
hilum.
Structure for forming new declarative memories
hippocampus
Role of the thalamus
homeostasis of heart rate, BP, and digestion - boss of the AN - biological clock - thermostat of the body
renal column
house blood vessels that branch from the renal artery as they travel to the outer portion of the cortex
The liver cannot metabolize ___________ in any significant amount.
ketone bodies
Which of the following is NOT a component of the urinary tract?
kidneys
What is an aquaporin?
kind of water channel in the plasma membrane
Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of lactose into glucose and galactose?
lactase
Which organ functions to absorb significant quantities of water, electrolytes, and vitamins?
large intestine
Explain how the lining of the digestive tract is considered an external body surface.
it is open to the outside on both ends
Where does blood in the arcuate artery travel next on its journey toward the glomerulus?
interlobular artery
Name the sphincters of the anus.
internal anal sphincter external anal sphincter
Structures involved in general visceral sensation
internal organs
The most active site for chemical digestion and absorption is the ____.
jejunum
What is unique about the muscularis externa of the large intestine?
longitudinal layer is not continuous throughout most of its length. Instead, this layer is gathered into three bands or ribbons of muscle called taeniae coli
A substance that is oxidized __________.
loses electrons
A tightly packed group of cells where the ascending limb of the nephron loop and the distal tubule transition are known as the:
macula densa
renal pyramid
made up of parallel bundles of small tubes, with fewer blood vessels than in the renal cortex
The acinar cells of the pancreas secrete their exocrine products into small ducts that drain into the __________.
main pancreatic and accessory pancreatic duct
What are the two ducts that deliver pancreatic juice to the duodenum?
main pancreatic duct merges with the duct from the liver and gallbladder
Homeostasis
maintained by nervous (quicker) and endocrine (hormones) system
Which of the following actions best exemplifies enzymatic hydrolysis?
nutrient breakdown
What is obligatory and facultative water reabsorption? What percentage of water reabsorption is due to each category?
o- water is "obliged" by osmosis to follow solutes that have been reabsorbed (85%) f- which is adjusted by hormones to meet the body's needs and maintain fluid homeostasis (15%)
You would expect leptin deficient mice to be __________.
obese and overeating
What enzyme continues the process of carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine? Where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?
pancreatic amylase. This enzyme is very similar in structure and function to salivary amylase, and catalyzes the reactions that break the remaining polysaccharides into oligosaccharides.
The _____ carries a fluid rich in bicarbonate ions.
pancreatic duct
The acidic chyme is neutralized as it enters the small intestine by ____.
pancreatic juice
Acinar cells of the pancreas release:
pancreatic juice.
The majority of triglyceride digestion occurs in the small intestine facilitated by the enzyme ____.
pancreatic lipase
Which of the following will NOT pass across the filtration membrane?
plasma proteins
The visceral layer of the glomerular capsule is covered with specialized epithelial cells called:
podocytes
What is the name of the cell that forms the visceral layer?
podocytes
Recommended daily intake of carbohydrates should mostly come from:
polysaccharides.
What is found at each corner of a lobule? What three structures compose it?
portal triad: (1) a branch of the hepatic artery called a hepatic arteriole, (2) a branch of the portal vein called a portal venule, and (3) a small bile duct that carries bile.
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?
postcentral gyrus
Motor program is located in the ______?
precentral gyrus
Heat is exchanged between the body and the environment by all of the following mechanisms except ________.
precipitation
Heat is exchanged between the body and the environment by all of the following mechanisms except __________.
precipitation
What is the main digestive function of the liver?
produce bile
Ependymal cells
produce cerebrospinal fluid, line ventricles
What is the main job of the pharynx?
propulsion
Which of the following functions of the digestive system allows for food and liquids to pass from one organ to the next?
propulsion
The ______ is not an organ involved with the urinary system.
prostate gland
All of the following physiological processes are carried out by the kidneys except:
protection
Amino acids make up this group
proteins
Where does facultative water reabsorption take place?
late distal tubule and collecting system
What hormone stimulates the satiety center?
leptin
What hormone suppresses the appetite?
leptin
Dietary sources include butter, cream, cheese, and plant oils
lipids
What happens to lipids in a water-based solution? Why does this limit the amount of digestion that occurs?
lipids tend to stick together, forming large globules rather than distributing evenly in a water-based solution
Dietary fats are emulsified by a fluid produced by which accessory organ?
liver
The hepatic portal vein takes the breakdown products of nucleic acids to this organ for metabolism
liver
Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
liver and kidneys
The gallbladder is located on the posterior side of the:
liver.
Bile is produced by the ___ and stored in the ____.
liver; gallbladder
The third set of molars are more commonly known as _____.
wisdom teeth
The metabolic rate will increase __________.
with increased muscle mass
What process catabolizes fatty acids?
ß-oxidation
The most important function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is to:
secrete renin in response to decreased renal blood pressure or blood flow
What type of tissue is the parietal layer?
simple squamous epithelium
Fourth ventricle
situated between the pons and cerebellum
Structures involved in general somatic secretion
skin, muscle, joint
The enzyme pepsin catalyzes reactions that digest proteins in this organ
stomach
The main functions of the ____ are churning, peristalsis, storage, and chemical digestion with the enzyme pepsin.
stomach
Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the liver?
stores and concentrates bile
The micturition reflex is initiated by __________.
stretch receptors in the wall of the bladder
What is the paracellular route?
substances pass between adjacent tubule cells
What is the transcellular route?
substances such as glucose and amino acids must move through the tubule cells
ATP production by direct transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphate-containing molecule to ADP is called __________.
substrate-level phosphorylation
What is metabolism?
sum of all chemical reactions in the body
What is the apical side of a tubule cell? Basolateral?
the membrane facing the tubule lumen, the side of the membrane facing the interstitial fluid
The total amount of energy expended by the body to power all of its processes is called __________.
the metabolic rate
180 L of fluid is filtered out each day, does that mean that we urinate out 180L a day? Of course not! We would rapidly dehydrate! That fluid needs to be absorbed back into the blood stream. That process is called _____________ and your kidneys are very efficient at it
tubular reabsorption
Returning fluid and solutes from filtrate to blood happens via __________.
tubular reabsorption
What is the direction of fluid movement during tubular secretion?
tubular reabsorption in the reverse direction- moved from the peritubular capillary blood into the filtrate to eventually be excreted
Some waste substances are not filtered out. These substances can be moved into the tubule in order to remove them from the body in urine. That process is called ________
tubular secretion
Neuron and neuroglial cell
two primary types of cells in nervous tissue
3 types of neurons directly involved in eliciting a muscle contraction
upper motor, interneurons, lower motor
Which of the following chemicals is a waste product from amino acid catabolism?
urea
Which of the following is a waste product from amino acid catabolism?
urea
Severe renal failure, in which the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is less than 50% of normal, is known as ___.
uremia
Urine is transported from kidney to the urinary bladder by the __________.
ureter
Urine is transported from kidney to the urinary bladder by the:
ureter
Under normal conditions, where should we expect to see most urea?
urine
Consuming alcohol inhibits the release of ADH. As a result __________.
urine volume will increase
The yellow color of urine comes from the presence of:
urochrome.
Which cranial nerve stimulates acid secretion during the stomach's gastric phase?
vagus nerve
The _____ acts as a countercurrent exchanger in the renal medulla.
vasa recta
What is found in the epidural space of the spinal cord?
veins and adipose tissue
The myogenic mechanism acts to restore glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by changing __________.
vessel diameter
The ____ is the space between the lips and cheeks.
vestibule
The _____ forms the outer tissue layer of some abdominal organs.
visceral peritoneum
What creates the mesentery?
visceral peritoneum
Special Senses
vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, taste
Thalamus is the gateway for ______
vision, taste, equilibrium, hearing
Which of these vitamins is water-soluble?
vitamin C
Classified as fat-soluble or water-soluble
vitamins
Micturition involves:
voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions.
The three phases of swallowing, in order, are:
voluntary phase, pharyngeal phase, and esophageal phase.
Gastric pressure increases and stomach and intestinal contents are propelled in the opposite direction during ____.
vomiting
If oxygen was NOT available as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, which cellular respiration product could not be made?
water
What is reabsorbed in the nephron loop?
water
What type of substances are found in the filtrate?
water and small solutes
Which of the following activities will increase your basal metabolic rate (BMR) the most?
weight training 3 times a week
Right and left lateral, third and fourth
what are the four ventricles
What are the two primary functions of bile?
(1) It is required for the digestion and absorption of lipids; and (2) it is the mechanism by which the liver excretes wastes and other substances that the kidneys cannot excrete
What are the three components of the countercurrent mechanism?
(1) a countercurrent multiplier system in the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons, (2) the recycling of urea in the medullary collecting ducts, and (3) a countercurrent exchanger in the vasa recta
What are the four basic processes of metabolism?
(1)harnessing the energy in the chemical bonds of molecules obtained from the diet (2)converting one type of molecule into another for the cell's synthesis reactions (3)carrying out synthesis reactions and assembling macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids (4)breaking down macromolecules into their monomers or other smaller molecules
What happens next to the monosaccharides?
After the monosaccharides cross the basal membrane, they diffuse through the extracellular fluid and into the capillaries in the villus. Once in the blood, they are delivered to the liver via the hepatic portal vein for processing
What should not be found in filtrate?
Albumin
Which of the following hormones causes sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule?
Aldosterone
Which hormones promote facultative water reabsorption?
Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
What are the two types of nephrons? (think about the names, cortical for cortex, juxta for "nearby" and medullary for medulla). Where is each type located? Label them in the figure.
Cortical ( located primarily in the renal cortex) and juxtamedullary nephrons (sits close to the boundary between the renal cortex and the renal medulla)
What does the countercurrent mechanism accomplish in the nephron loop?
Creation of a steep concentration gradient for continued water reabsorption
Glucose and amino acids
Cross easily through protein channels or carriers into BBB
Axoplasm
Cytoplams of an axon
memory of things readily available to consciousness that could be expressed aloud (fact memory)
Declarative Memory
Receptive region
Dendrites and cell body
What anchors the end of the spinal cord to the coccyx?
Denticulate ligaments formed by the spinal pia
Oxygen and lipid based molecules
Diffuse freely permeable can travel in and out of BBB
Where in the nephron loop is the filtrate most concentrated? Most dilute?
Down the descending loop, up the ascending loop
In which organ is chyme mixed with pancreatic juice and bile?
Duodenum
Which segment of the small intestine receives chyme from the stomach?
Duodenum
Describe the three divisions of the small intestine.
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Which of the following products is made in the citric acid cycle?
FADH2
Secretion happens via:
Facilitated transport only
What molecule cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?
Fatty acid
What part of a triglyceride undergoes β-oxidation?
Fatty acids
What are rugae?
Folds in the interior stomach
What is the body structure where the medulla oblongata and the brain meet
Foramen Magnus
Which of the following is NOT true of glycolysis?
Four molecules of NADH are spent.
Which of the following is not true of glycolysis?
Four molecules of NADH are spent.
Which of the following statements is not true of glycolysis?
Four molecules of NADH are spent.
The amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in 1 minute is defined as the __________.
GFR
What effect does high blood pressure have on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in the absence of regulatory mechanisms?
GFR will increase.
What are gastric glands?
Gastric glands are unusual in that they contain both endocrine cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream and exocrine cells that secrete an acidic, enzyme-containing fluid called gastric juice into the lumen of the stomach
When would you be likely to produce dilute urine? Describe the appearance and volume of the urine.
The kidneys produce dilute urine when the solute concentration of the body's extracellular fluid is too low, vol increases and it its more clear
What is the next region called? What is the name for the two divisions of this region? What tissue type composes the thin regions? The thick regions?
The nephron loop has two limbs: The descending limb travels toward the renal medulla, turns 180°, and becomes the ascending limb, which climbs back toward the renal cortex. simple squamous epithelium simple cuboidal epithelium
Where is the pancreas located and what are the regions of the pancreas?
The pancreas is mostly located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen Head, body, tail
Which of the following results would be considered abnormal in a urinalysis?
The presence of albumin
What is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?
Gastrin
What is the name of the central gray matter that links the "wings" of gray matter together?
Gray commissure
What separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity?
Hard palate and soft palate
Which of the following characteristics is not associated with a person functioning at basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
Has not eaten in the past 6 hours
Select the two factors upon which body mass index depends.
Height and weight
What is not a major function of the kidneys?
Hematopoiesis
Which of the following sequences is the correct flow of blood through the liver to the inferior vena cava?
Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein - portal triad - hepatic sinusoids - central vein - hepatic vein
What cells compose the liver lobules?
Hepatocytes
Which of the following substances is considered good in higher levels?
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
Which type of lipoprotein transfers cholesterol from the cells in peripheral tissues to the liver for inclusion as part of bile?
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
Describe the digestion of lipids.
Lipids are broken apart by stomach churning and broken down in reactions catalyzed by gastric lipase Lipids enter the small intestine and are emulsified by bile salts Pancreatic lipase catalyzes reactions that digest the lipids into free fatty acids and monoglycerides Bile salts remain associated with the digested lipids to form micelles
What is the basic unit of the liver? Which cell composes it? What is found in the center of it?
Liver lobule, hepatocytes, central vein
needle inserted into subarachnoid space and CSF is withdrawn for analysis
Lumbar Puncture
Which of the following functions are performed by the urinary system?
Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance and remove metabolic wastes
Current USDA guidelines for a healthy diet are called __________.
MyPlate
Where do Second-order sensory neurons end?
Thalamus/brainstem
Production of language (planning and ordering of words)
Broca's Area
arachnoid trabeculae
Bundles of collagen fibers and fibroblasts, anchor the arachnoid mater to the deeper pia mater
What is the bundle of spinal nerve roots extending from the end of the spinal cord?
Cauda Equina
What best exemplifies enzymatic hydrolysis?
Nutrient breakdown
Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near ________.
37.5° C (99.5° F)
How many ATP molecules are made when one glucose molecule is completely oxidized?
38 ATP
What is the maximum number of ATP produced when one glucose is completely oxidized?
38 ATP
A mutation has damaged the formation of oxaloacetate. What process will be impaired?
Citric acid cycle
If a mutation prevents the formation of oxaloacetate, which of the following processes will be impaired?
Citric acid cycle
processing and responding to complex external stimuli, recognizing related stimuli, processing internal stimuli, and planning appropriate responses to stimuli
Cognition
What type of epithelial tissue lines the stomach?
Columnar cells
What is the primary function of copper in the body?
Component of coenzymes of the electron transport chain
When would you be likely to produce concentrated urine? Describe the appearance and volume of the urine.
Concentrated urine results from "turning on" facultative water reabsorption in the late distal tubule and collecting system by the release of ADH, less vol more color
What causes a gastric ulcer?
Conditions that decrease the amount of mucus secreted by these cells can lead to a gastric ulcer
Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)
Consists of neurons that carry signals primarily to thoracic and abdominal viscera. Regulates secretion from certain glands, contraction of smooth muscle, and the contraction of cardiac muscle in heart
Visceral sensory division
Consists of neurons that transmit signals from viscera (organs) such as the heart, stomach, lungs, intestines, kidneys, urinary bladder
Somatic motor divison
Consists of neurons that transmit signals to skeletal muscles
Dura mater
Consists of two layers, periosteal layer (superficial) and meningeal layer (deep)
saturated
Containing the highest amount of substance
Where does the spinal cord end?
Conus Medullaris
What are some other functions of the liver?
Nutrient metabolism, detoxification, excretion
What is obligatory water reabsorption?
Occurs without the regulation of hormones and irrespective of the medullary concentration gradient
Olfaction
Of all the special senses, which does not have a specialized receptor cell?
Which of the following body temperatures is recognized as the defining temperature for hyperthermia?
38.3 °C (101 °F) or higher
Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Cerebellum, Brainstem
4 divisions of the brain
What percentage of the total caloric intake should be carbohydrates?
45-65%
What is the net filtration pressure (NFP) if the glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) is 55 mm Hg, the capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) is 15 mm Hg, and the glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP) is 35 mm Hg?
5 mm Hg
Complete the formula for glucose catabolism (cell reparation): C6H12O6 + ___ --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + _____+ heat
6O2; 38 ATP
Place these vessels in the correct order as blood flows into and through the kidney. 1. afferent arteriole 2. arcuate artery 3. efferent arteriole 4. glomerulus 5. interlobar artery 6. interlobular (cortical radiate) artery 7. renal artery 8. segmental artery
7, 8, 5, 2, 6, 1, 4, 3
About how much water is absorbed by the small intestine? Large intestine?
8, 1
About how much sodium and water has already been reabsorbed before reaching the DT?
85% of the water and 90% of the sodium ions have been reabsorbed
About how much water is processed by the digestive tract each day? what is the source of water?
9 , the alimentary canal absorbs large quantities of water
What two products can be generated from the transamination of an amino acid?
A carbon skeleton and the amino acid glutamate
What causes phenylketonuria?
A deficiency of an enzyme that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine
What is chyme?
A liquid mixture that results from the stomach churning a bolus and mixing it with gastric juice
Falx cerebri
Partition between the right and left cerebral hemispheres, a double fold of meningeal dura
Any element other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that is required by living organisms
minerals
The type of tissue lining the urinary bladder is:
transitional epithelium
Which of the following is a normal property of urine?
translucent
What is the basic function of the urinary tract?
transport, store, and eventually eliminate urine from the body
Most of the lipids ingested in the diet are in what form?
triglycerides
The majority of the body's energy is stored as ________.
triglycerides
The majority of the body's energy is stored as __________.
triglycerides
The majority of the body's energy is stored as:
triglycerides.
In what organelle would you find acetyl CoA formation, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain?
mitochondrion
What is NOT required for glycolysis to occur?
mitochondrion
What is an acinus?
modified simple cuboidal epithelial cell that surrounds duct where cells secrete their products
Where are the juxtaglomerular cells located?
modified smooth muscle cells in the afferent and efferent arterioles
Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of ________.
monosaccharides and disaccharides
Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of __________.
monosaccharides and disaccharides
Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of:
monosaccharides and disaccharides.
What can we consciously control about the defecation reflex?
relaxation of the external anal sphincter
The _____ is an extremely thin layer of dense connective tissue that covers the kidney.
renal capsule
The process of filtration occurs at the __________.
renal corpuscle
Which part of the nephron is responsible for filtering blood?
renal corpuscle
What are the two main divisions of the nephron?
renal corpuscle and renal tubule
The two main divisions of the nephron are the:
renal corpuscle and renal tubule.
In cortical nephrons, the:
renal corpuscle lies in the outer portion of the renal cortex.
The process of filtration occurs at the:
renal corpuscle.
In which kidney region are the renal pyramids located?
renal medulla
The area of the kidney that drains urine is the ______.
renal pelvis
Urine drains from a major calyx into __________.
renal pelvis
What are the three main regions of the kidney?
renal pelvis, renal medulla, renal cortex
Reabsorption is the movement of molecules from the _____ into the _____.
renal tubules; peritubular capillaries
Released by the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells in response to a decrease in systemic blood pressure
renin
What type of information is carried by ascending tracts in the spinal cord?
stimuli to the brain
Cell body, dendrites, axon
three parts of a neuron
4 components of the CNS critical for coordinated movement
- Cerebral cortex - basal nuclei - cerebellum - spinal cord
Structures of CNS that maintain homeostasis
- Nuclei of the brainstem - hypothalamus
2 primary roles of the Spinal Cord
- Relay Station - processing station (can do some integration and processing)
Differences between spinal and brain meninges
- Spinal durmatter lacks periosteal layer and only consists of meningeal layer - spina pia plays a role
How do sensory stimuli reach the brain?
- detected by neurons in PNS and sent as sensory input to the CNS - sensory input sent to the cerebral cortex to be interpreted
Four functions that are largely lateralized
- emotional functions - attention - facial recognition - language-related recognition
What is found in the posterior root? Anterior root?
- sensory - anterior
Interneurons
-Association neurons -Relay messages within the CNS, primarily between sensory and motor neurons -Vast majority of interneurons are multipolar in structure
Integrative functions
-CNS -Analyze and interpret the detected sensory stimuli and determine appropriate response
Brain
-Enclosed completely by skull -Composed of nervous tissue -100 billion neurons that enable everything from regulation of breathing and the processing of information to performing in the creative arts
Myelin sheath
-High lipid content makes it an excellent insulator -Overall effect of insulation is to increase speed of conduction of action potentials
Brainstem
-Maintains homeostasis -Contains certain reflexes -Monitors movement -Integrates and relays information
Cerebellum
-Monitors and coordinates movement
Bipolar neurons
-One axon and one dendrite -Sensory (afferent) neurons -Special Sense organs in the PNS, such as the retina and olfactory epithelium
Mutlipolar
-One axon with two or more dendrites -Motor (efferent) neurons, interneurons -Most neurons in the CNS, motor neurons in the PNS
Motor division
-PNS -Actions performed in response to integration -Efferent division -travel from the brain/spinal cord to the muscles/effectors
Sensory division
-PNS -Gathering information about the internal and external environments -Afferent division -Travel to the brain
Spinal cord
-Passes through the vertebral foramen of the first cervical vertebra and continues inferiorly to the first or second lumbar vertebrae -Contains fewer cells than brain -Enables brain to communicate with most parts of the body below the head and neck -Also carries out certain functions on its own
Cerebrum
-Performs higher function -Interprets sensory stimuli -Plans and initiates movement
Diencephalon
-Processes, integrates, and relays information -Maintains homeostasis -Regulates biological rhythms
Important functions of CSF
-Protects brain by cushioning it -Maintains constant temperature -Removes wastes -Increases buoyancy of the brain so it does not crush itself
Functional processes or nervous system
-Sensory functions -Integrative functions -Motor functions
Dendrites
-Short, high forked processes that resemble the branches of a tree limb -Receive input from other neurons which they transmit in the form of electrical impulses toward the cell body
Pseudounipolar neurons
-Single short processes that splits into two axons (no dendrites) -Sensory (afferent) neurons -Sensory neurons in the PNS associated with touch, pain, and vibration senses
Why do we need sleep?
-energy restoration - brain replenishes oxygen supply
From deep (innermost) to superficial (outermost), the layers of the organs of the alimentary canal are: 1. mucosa 2. muscularis externa 3. serosa (adventitia) 4. submucosa
1, 4, 2, 3
Which of the following products is not the result of ATP hydrolysis?
Adenosine
How much urine, in liters, is typically produced in a 24 hour period?
1.8
How much urine, in liters, is typically produced in a 24-hour period?
1.8
What is net filtration pressure (NFP) in mm Hg in the glomerular capillaries?
10
What is net filtration pressure (NFP) in the glomerular capillaries, in mm Hg?
10
What is the normal value for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in mL/min?
125
What is the normal value for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in ml/min?
125
How many net ATP are produced as a result of glycolysis?
2 ATP
What are the products of glycolysis?
2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Place the structures of the large intestine listed in their correct sequence, starting at the cecum and ending at the rectum. 1. right colic flexure 2. sigmoid colon 3. ascending colon 4. transverse colon 5. left colic flexure 6. descending colon
3, 1, 4, 5, 6, 2
What is the osmolarity of filtrate in the renal capsule?
300 mOsm
What is the osmolarity of plasma?
300 mOsm
__________ ATP molecules are produced via the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
34
When one molecule of glucose is completely oxidized, how many ATP molecules are produced?
36 atp
Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near __________.
37.5 °C (99.5 °F)
Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near:
37.5 °C (99.5 °F).
Which of the following is an effect of angiotensin-II (A-II)?
A-II promotes thirst.
Which statement is TRUE regarding antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
ADH increases the permeability of the late distal tubule and cortical collecting ducts to water.
Which of the following does not transport bile?
Accessory pancreatic duct
From which of the following are ketone bodies assembled during ketogenesis?
Acetyl-CoA
From which of the following precursors are ketone bodies assembled during ketogenesis?
Acetyl-CoA
What does the intermediate step produce that is needed for the citric acid cycle to proceed?
Acetyl-CoA
Describe three hormones involved in facultative water reabsorption. Note: we have seen these hormones before, but now that we know how the kidneys work, we can be more specific about how they carry out their effects in the body.
Aldosterone- Both actions increase the reabsorption of sodium ions from the filtrate and the secretion of potassium ions into the filtrate. Note that these actions also indirectly cause reabsorption of water and chloride ions, because as sodium ions are reabsorbed, water and chloride ions passively follow Antidiuretic hormone- causes water retention and reduces urine output ANP- It also appears to inhibit release of ADH and aldosterone, causing fewer sodium ions (and also less water) to be reabsorbed, and so more sodium ions and water to appear in the urine
How are glucose and galactose transported out of the enterocyte on the basal side?
All three monosaccharides cross the basal enterocyte membrane by the same facilitated diffusion mechanism
How is ammonia removed from the body?
Ammonia is removed from the body by the synthesis of urea in the liver urea cycle
Which of the following effects is the result of angiotensin-II (Ang-II)?
Ang-II promotes thirst.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is regulated directly by which of the following hormones?
Angiotensin-II and atrial natriuretic peptide
What two products can be generated from the transamination of an amino acid?
Carbon skeleton and glutamate
What region of the stomach does food first enter after its passage through the relaxed gastroesophageal sphincter?
Cardia
What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate in the ascending limb of the nephron loop? Why?
As the filtrate enters the thick ascending limb, sodium and other ions are pumped out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid. However, because this part of the limb is virtually impermeable to water, water can't follow these solutes. So the concentration of the filtrate decreases as it moves up the ascending limb of the loop
What are the regions of the colon? Name the flexures of the colon.
Ascending colon, Transverse colon, Descending colon, Sigmoid colon Right and left colic flexure
Blood supply to brain
Brain is richly supplied with blood vessels
Axon collaterals
Branches that extend from axons, typically arise at right angles to the axon
What is responsible for the emulsification of lipids in the duodenum?
Bile
What is another important stimulus that leads to the release of bile? How is this a positive feedback loop?
Bile itself, As bile salts re-enter the liver, bile secretion rises dramatically in a positive feedback loop. Bile secretion continues into the duodenum until the duodenum empties, at which point CCK and secretin levels decline.
What is the general equation for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
What is the correct general equation for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP energy
Bile release from the gallbladder is stimulated by the hormone __________.
CCK
____ is a hormone released from the small intestine primarily in response to fatty chyme in the intestinal lumen.
CCK
What hormone triggers the release of bile? What is the source of this hormone?
CCK, enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum
Write out the equation to show the reaction of CO2 in blood. What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction?
CO2+H2O⇄Carbonicanhydrase H2CO3⇄H++HCO−3
What is found in the subarachnoid space?
CSF
To some extent, only if the cell body remains intact can it regenerate
Can damaged neurons in the PNS regenerate?
What runs through the center of the spinal cord?
Central Canal filled with CSF and lined by gray matterr
Responsible for a person's character
Cerebral Cortex
WHere do Third-order sensory neurons end?
Cerebral Cortex
Spinal Cord Bulges
Cervical enlargement and lumbar enlargement (attachment site for spinal nerves)
Name two hormones that stimulate pancreatic secretion.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin
Biological process that follows a set pattern over the 24-hour day
Circadian Rhythm
What are the three features that increase the surface area of the small intestine? How is this an example of the structure-function core principle? Which can be seen with the naked eye? Which forms a brush border?
Circular folds, villi, microvilli Circular folds are largest, brush border is microvilli
Which of the following terms best summarizes ATP hydrolysis?
Exergonic
What substances are reabsorbed in the PT?
Electrolytes, nutrients, bicarbonate ions, and water
Explain how these reactions are coupled together.
Endergonic and exergonic reactions in the cell are coupled—essentially, the cell "pays for" an endergonic reaction with the energy released by an exergonic reaction
What type of reaction requires energy to proceed?
Endergonic reaction
Where are brush border enzymes located? Name three brush border enzymes. What reactions do they catalyze? What are the three products of those reactions?
Enzymes in brush border of small intestine, lactase, maltase, and sucrose, digestion of the sugar lactose, glucose, fructose, and galactose
local anesthetic medication is injected into the epidural space through inserted needle
Epidural Anesthesia
Which of the following is an organ of the alimentary canal?
Esophagus
What hormone directly stimulates the hunger center?
Ghrelin
What are the three major processes in urine formation?
Glomerular filtration, Tubular reabsorption, Tubular secretion
What process synthesizes glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors such as glycerol or certain amino acids?
Gluconeogenesis
Which of the following molecules is broken down in cellular respiration, providing fuel for the cell?
Glucose
Which of the following molecules results from the lipolysis of a triglyceride?
Glycerol and fatty acids
Which of the following results from the lipolysis of a triglyceride?
Glycerol and fatty acids
What are the two main storage materials for nutrient energy in the body?
Glycogen and adipose
What process breaks down glycogen to release glucose into the blood?
Glycogenolysis
Which of the following processes takes place in the cytosol of a human cell?
Glycolysis
What is the correct sequence of events of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis, intermediate step, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain
Why does chemical digestion vary for each type of nutrient?
However, chemical digestion varies for each nutrient because digestive enzymes are specific for a single type of bond in a single type of nutrient.
What part of the brain is involved in thermoregulation?
Hypothalamus
How does an adjustment in water reabsorption impact urine concentration?
If less water is reabsorbed, the concentration of the filtrate remains low. If, more water is reabsorbed, the concentration of the filtrate progressively increases as it passes through the late distal tubule and collecting system- more conc
What is the first process to occur in the digestive system?
Ingestion
Axon hillock
Initial portion of an axon where an action potential is generated
Which hormone stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering the concentration of glucose in the blood?
Insulin
Where does blood in the arcuate artery travel next on its journey toward the glomerulus?
Interlobular (cortical radiate) artery
When is carbon dioxide produced during glucose catabolism?
Intermediate step and citric acid cycle
Ventricles
Internal cavities within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
What integrates signals from sensory neurons?
Interneurons
Which of the following is true about tubular reabsorption?
It involves carrier-mediated transport.
What effect will vasodilation of the afferent arteriole have on glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
It will increase the GHP and the GFR.
Which of the following processes does not occur during the absorptive state?
Ketogenesis in hepatocytes converts fatty acids to ketone bodies and releases them into the blood.
Describe the kidney shape and location.
Kidney bean, against the posterior abdominal wall and are retroperitoneal organs, meaning they are located posterior to the peritoneal membranes
Axon terminals
Knoblike structure at the end of an axon that contains synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters
Another name for the citric acid cycle is ________________.
Krebs cycle
Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of lactose into glucose and galactose?
Lactase
Which organ functions to absorb significant quantities of water, electrolytes, and vitamins?
Large intestine
Cell body
Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm, most metabolically active
memory of things largely procedural or skill-based
Nondeclarative Memory
Which of the following characteristics is associated with unsaturated fatty acids?
May have potential health benefits
Describe the steps of lipid absorption.
Micelles escort lipids to the enterocyte plasma membrane. Lipids diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer and enter the cytosol Lipids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons Chylomicrons are released into the interstitial fluid by exocytosis and then enter a lacteal
How are vitamins classified?
Micronutrients
Which fold of the small intestine creates a brush border appearance upon microscopic examination?
Microvilli
Which of the following is not a nutrient monomer used by the body to generate ATP?
Nucleic acids
Which of the following molecules will not be converted to fat by lipogenesis?
Nucleic acids
Which of the following monomers is not a nutrient used by the body to generate ATP?
Nucleic acids
Describe the process of the countercurrent multiplier system.
NaCl is actively transported from the filtrate in the thick ascending limb into the interstitial fluid, raising its NaCl concentration. The NaCl pumped into the interstitial fluid draws water out of the filtrate in the thin descending limb into the interstitial fluid by osmosis Due to the continuing loss of water, the NaCl concentration of the filtrate increases as it approaches the bottom of the loop The high NaCl concentration of the filtrate that reaches the thick ascending limb allows the NaCl reabsorption to continue
Axon
Nerve fiber, carries signals both toward and away from the cell body. Processes that can generate and conduct action potentials
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves (cranial and spinal)
What is gray matter composed of?
Neuronal cell bodies, neutrophil, glial cells, synapses, and capillaries
Does each step of the countercurrent multiplier occur in sequence?
No, All of these steps are occurring constantly
How are amino acids transported into the enterocyte on the apical side? How are they transported out of the enterocyte on the basal side?
Oligopeptides and free amino acids cross the enterocyte apical membrane primarily by secondary active transport membrane proteins that use a sodium ion gradient established by the Na+/K+ pump. The free amino acids then exit the basal enterocyte membrane by facilitated diffusion, after which they enter the capillaries in the villus.
Pia mater
Only meninx that physically touches the brain
What molecule is both the starting compound and end result of the citric acid cycle?
Oxaloacetate
What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?
Oxygen
What is the enzyme that begins protein digestion and where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?
Pepsin produced by chief cells and gastric glands, break protein by breaking peptide bonds
What process involves the donation of a phosphate group from ATP to a reactant to "pay" for a cellular process?
Phosphorylation
Axolemma
Plasma membrane of an axon
Nerves
Primary organ of the PNS -Bundle of long neuron arms (axons)that are packaged together with blood vessels and surrounded by connective tissue
Excretion
Process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body
Transduction
Process of converting energy in the form of light, sound, movement, or touch into a neural signal
What is the main job of the pharynx?
Propulsion
What is an exergonic reaction? An endergonic reaction?
Reactions that release energy are known as exergonic reactions endergonic reaction is one that requires the input of energy to proceed
What can we consciously control about the defecation reflex?
Relaxation of the external anal sphincter
Describe the basic functions of the kidneys. What hormone is produced by the kidneys?
Removal of metabolic wastes Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance Regulation of acid-base balance Maintenance of blood pressure Regulation of erythropoiesis Performing other metabolic functions Hormone: erythropoietin, regulates rbc production in bone marrow
What are the two main subdivisions of the nephron?
Renal corpuscle and renal tubule
Name the three connective tissue layers that surround the kidney and label them in the image
Renal fascia (outter), Adipose capsule, Renal capsule (inner)
Starting with the most superficial layer, list the layers of connective tissue surrounding the kidney.
Renal fascia, adipose capsule, and renal capsule
In which kidney region are the renal pyramids located?
Renal medulla
Where are the macula densa cells located?
Renal tubule btwn acsending limb and distale tubule
Melatonin depresses the activity of which structure?
Reticular formation
Name and label the four lobes of the liver. What separates the left and right lobe?
Right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes falciform ligament
Which of the following does not increase surface area in the small intestine?
Rugae
What is the primary output for S1 axons?
S2
Which of the following sequences correctly follows the flow of blood, from largest to smallest, after the renal artery to just before the peritubular capillaries?
Segmental artery, interlobar artery, arcuate artery, interlobular artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, and efferent arteriole
Which process is a squeezing motion of the circular layer of smooth muscle in the small intestine?
Segmentation
reversible and normal suspension of consciousness
Sleep
Where do First-order sensory neurons end?
Spinal cord
What initiates the micturition reflex?
Stretch receptors in the wall of the urinary bladder signal the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Arachnoid villi (granulations)
Structure that drains CSF -Project up through the meningeal dura into the dural sinuses
Which of the following micronutrients is considered a major mineral?
Sulfur
What is found in pancreatic juice?
The collective secretions of the pancreatic acinar and duct cells
What is lipolysis?
The fatty acids and glycerol are liberated by an enzyme-catalyzed process known as lipolysis
How is dilute urine produced?
The filtrate entering the late distal tubule is already less concentrated than the surrounding interstitial fluid. For this reason, the kidneys simply have to not reabsorb any additional water from the filtrate, or "turn off" facultative water reabsorption, to produce dilute urine
What are two ways that lipid globules can be broken apart?
The first is by mechanical digestion—mastication in the mouth, churning in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine. These movements scatter lipids and prevent them from coming together. The second way involves bile salts in the small intestine
Look at the image above and imagine fluid leaking out of the capillary (like a leaky hose). Where would the fluid go? What is the fluid called?
The fluid that passes through the filter to leave the glomerular capillaries, which is known as filtrate, first enters the capsular space, then flows into the renal tubule lumen
What is the primary function of the gallbladder?
The gallbladder stores bile, concentrates it (removing water), and releases it when stimulated
Describe the glomerulus. How is it different from other capillaries?
The glomerulus is a group of looping fenestrated capillaries. These capillaries are called fenestrated because of the large pores, or fenestrations (fenestre- = "window"), present within their plasma membranes and between their endothelial cells.
The glomerulus is a group of _______________ capillaries, which allow large volumes of fluids and solutes to be exchanged.
fenestrated
Which of the following statements regarding urethral anatomy is incorrect?
The male urethra is shorter than the female urethra.
What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate in the descending limb of the nephron loop? Why?
The thin descending limb of the nephron loop is permeable to water but not solutes, as you learned, so water flows from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid by osmosis, but very few solutes follow. This causes the filtrate to become progressively more concentrated as it travels down the loop
papilla
The tip of each renal pyramid tapers into a slender papilla, which borders on the first urine-draining structure
What is a haustrum? What is a epiploic appendage? Label these structures in the image on the previous page.
Their constant tension bunches the colon into pockets referred to as haustra
Where are the last enzymes in the protein digestion process located? What do they catalyze?
There are multiple brush border enzymes that catalyze the digestion of oligopeptides into free amino acids
Choroid plexuses
These are networks of capillaries found in the walls of the ventricles of the brain that produce cerebrospinal fluid.
What happens to excess amino acids?
They are converted to glucose and fatty acids.
How do osmotic laxatives work?
They cause water retention in the stool material by the process of osmosis.
Which part of the nephron loop are chloride ions actively reabsorbed?
Thick ascending limb
Which statement describes the citric acid cycle?
This process produces some ATP and carbon dioxide in the mitochondrion.
Which statement describes glycolysis?
This process splits glucose in half and produces 2 ATPs for each glucose.
Which statement describes the electron transport chain?
This process uses energy captured from electrons flowing to oxygen to produce most of the ATPs in cellular respiration.
Why are the pancreatic enzymes released in an inactive form?
This protects the pancreas from autodigestion, or digestion of its cells by its own enzymes
Cranial nerves
Those originating or traveling to the brain
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
Three cranial meninges (outermost to innermost)
In which portion of the alimentary canal is chyme mixed with pancreatic juice and bile?
duodenum
Which segment of the small intestine receives chyme from the stomach?
duodenum
The glomerular capillaries are drained by the ______.
efferent arterioles
Which of the following is a dietary source for lipids?
eggs
What drives the reabsorption of anions such as chloride and bicarbonate?
electrical gradient is created that drives the absorption of anions such as chloride and bicarbonate ions
The process by which bile breaks up large fat droplets into smaller ones is called __________.
emulsification
The crown of a tooth is covered by __________.
enamel
The crown of a tooth is covered by:
enamel.
Name a pancreatic enzyme that aids in protein digestion. What is the inactive form of this enzyme called?
Trypsinogen, trypsin
Which of the following is NOT true about tubular reabsorption?
Tubular reabsorption is entirely a passive process.
Which statement best describes the function of tubular reabsorption?
Tubular reabsorption reclaims items from filtrate and returns them to the blood.
What are the organs of the urinary tract?
Ureters, urethra, and urinary bladder
major calyx
Urine from three to four minor calyces drains into a larger major calyx
How active are the cells in the PT? What are the primary roles of these cells?
Very active, very metabolically active remarkably rapid reabsorption
What creates the mesentery?
Visceral peritoneum
Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract with water and polar solutes. What water-soluble vitamin is the exception?
Vitamin B12
Which of the following vitamins is absorbed in the ileum after binding to intrinsic factor?
Vitamin B12
Which of the following vitamins is water soluble?
Vitamin C
Which of these vitamins is water soluble?
Vitamin C
Which vitamin is required for calcium ion homeostasis and bone growth?
Vitamin D
What is facultative water reabsorption?
Water reabsorption that is controlled by hormones to maintain a constant extracellular fluid osmolarity
Understanding language and linking word with symbolic meaning
Wernicke's Area
Central Nervous system and Peripheral nervous system
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
minor calyx
a cup-shaped extension of the pelvis that encircles the apex of a pyramid
Which of the following would be a "potassium sparing diuretic," a drug that causes an increase in water loss, and a decrease in potassium loss in the kidneys?
a drug that blocks the effect of aldosterone
What is intrinsic factor? Where is it produced? What is its function?
a molecule produced by the parietal cells of the stomach, absorption of vitamin B12
Each of the following characteristics is typical of urine except __________.
a pH of 3.0
Each of the following is typical of urine except __________.
a pH of 3.0
A glomerulus is:
a set of capillaries within the renal corpuscle.
What do endergonic reactions require?
energy
What is the name of the cells that line the lumen of the small intestine and what do they produce?
enterocytes, produce multiple digestive enzymes, hormones, and mucus. These enzymes, along with those released by the pancreas, are responsible for the bulk of chemical digestion
Lacteals __________.
absorb the products of fat digestion
Which process is NOT a main function of the stomach?
absorption
Food does not normally come in contact with the _____, but they are involved in secretion and digestion.
accessory organs
Which of the following ducts does not transport bile?
accessory pancreatic duct
During lipogenesis, fatty acids are synthesized from _______________.
acetyl-CoA
If a waste molecule is in the peritubular capillary lumen, which structures must it pass through in order to move into the tubule lumen? What is this process called?
across or between the tubule cells, into the interstitial fluid, and finally across or between the endothelial cells of the peritubular capillaries to re-enter the blood tubular reabsorption?
ATP hydrolysis would yield all of the following, EXCEPT __________.
adenosine
What external covering protects the kidney from physical shock?
adipose capsule
The three tissue layers of the ureter, from superficial to deep, are:
adventitia, muscularis, and mucosa.
What should NOT be found in filtrate?
albumin
Which of the following solutes are not able to pass through the filtration membrane in a healthy kidney?
albumin
Which of the following solutes should not be found in filtrate?
albumin
Fenestrated glomerular capillaries are typically impermeable to:
albumin.
Which hormones promote facultative water reabsorption?
aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Transport maximum
all of their sites become filled, the carrier proteins are said to be saturated
What type of organic molecule must undergo transamination prior to being used for ATP synthesis?
amino acids
Protein catabolism results in:
amino acids.
The release of urea in the urine is a mechanism for the body to rid itself of ________.
ammonia
The release of urea in the urine is a mechanism for the body to rid itself of __________.
ammonia
The conversion of pepsinogen into the active form, pepsin, requires:
an acidic pH.
How does the muscularis externa of the stomach differ from the typical arrangement in the digestive tract?
an additional inner layer of smooth muscle in the stomach's body with its fibers oriented obliquely. This oblique layer of smooth muscle allows the stomach to perform churning
What will NOT stimulate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)?
an increase in systemic blood pressure
The reaction A + B + energy --> AB is a(n) __________.
anabolic reaction
What is anabolism?
anabolic reaction is one in which smaller molecules are combined to make a larger molecule
renal sinus
anchors the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves in place
Converts angiotensin-I (A-I) to active angiotensin-II (A-II)
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
Promotes the release of aldosterone by the adrenal glands
angiotensin-II (A-II)
Promotes vasoconstriction of efferent arterioles and systemic blood vessels
angiotensin-II (A-II)
Somas of lower motor neurons are located in _______
anterior horn
Inserts aquaporins to increase water reabsorption by cells in the late distal tubule and cortical collecting duct
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
The main hormone regulating facultative water reabsorption is:
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Essential nutrients:
are only obtained through the diet.
The filtrate is most concentrated __________.
at the turn of the nephron loop
Triggers urinary excretion of sodium ions
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
When blood volume increases, ______ will be released.
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Conducting region
axon
What are "normal flora" or "gut flora"? List four benefits of glut flora.
bacteria that make up as much as 60% of the dry mass of feces produce vitamins, metabolize undigested materials, deter the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulate the immune system
renal corpuscle & renal tubule
basic structure of a nephron, which consists of two main components: the globe-shaped renal corpuscle, and a long, snaking tube of epithelium called the renal tubule
Why is sodium ion reabsorption so important?
because this process turns out to be the key to reabsorbing many other substances in the proximal tubule
Where does carbohydrate digestion begin? What is the enzyme that begins carbohydrate digestion and where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?
begins in the mouth with the help of salivary amylase from the salivary glands, which catalyzes the reactions that break long polysaccharides into shorter oligosaccharides
Which of the following body temperatures is recognized as hypothermia?
below 32 °C (89.6 °F)
Where is the spinal epidural space located>
between meningeal dura and walls of vertebral foramina
What is responsible for the emulsification of lipids in the duodenum?
bile
Damaged hepatocytes will impair __________.
bile production
Damaged hepatocytes will impair:
bile production.
Emulsification requires __________.
bile salts
The removal of the gallbladder will affect:
bile storage.
The reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule helps regulate __________.
blood pH
The reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule helps regulate:
blood pH.
Once carbohydrates in the small intestine lumen are broken down into monosaccharides, how are they transported into the enterocyte?
both glucose and galactose are transported across the enterocyte's apical membrane by conc gradient
Central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
Where do upper motor neurons end?
brainstem
What is emulsification? What is an emulsion?
breaks up the lipid globules into smaller pieces by the process of emulsification. The end result is multiple tiny lipid droplets each coated with bile salts, a mixture called an emulsion
Before carbohydrates are absorbed, __________ digest disaccharides into monosaccharides.
brush border enzymes
Tracts
bundles of axons in the CNS
Nerves
bundles of axons in the PNS
Starting at the tip of the medullary pyramid, the correct sequence of structures that urine passes through on its way out of the body is:
calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.
No, they almost never regenerate
can damaged neurons in the CNS regenerate?
No, they are amitotic, no centrioles
can neurons divide?
What is the name of the space between the two layers? Label it above.
capsular space
Recommended daily intake of Calories for this category consists of about 45—65% of the diet
carbohydrates
Chemical digestion breaks down ___ into ____.
carbohydrates; monosaccharides
The esophagus empties into the __________ region of the stomach.
cardia
What region of the stomach does food first enter after its passage through the relaxed gastroesophageal sphincter?
cardia
Primary active transport
carrier protein "pump" directly uses ATP to move a substance against its concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion
carrier protein passively transports a substance with its concentration gradient, without using energy from ATP
What is catabolism?
catabolic reaction is one in which a substance is broken down into smaller parts
The breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose in the body is classified as __________.
catabolism
The breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose in the body is classified as:
catabolism.
The first portion of the large intestine is the:
cecum
What are the three segments of the large intestine?
cecum, the colon, and the rectum
What is found in the anterior horn?
cell bodies of motor neurons
Soma
cell body
What is a major difference in the histology of the cells in the DT compared to the PT?
cells of the distal tubule lack microvilli
Endothelial cells
cells that line all capillaries -Specialized to allow only selected substances to enter its ECF, therefore effectively act as a barrier that prevents other substances from doing so
The ____ of teeth is composed of material most similar to bone.
cementum
The smell, sight, or even thought of food can activate the ____ of gastric acid secretion in the stomach.
cephalic phase
Input from one is needed for smooth, fluid movement?
cerebellum (and basal nuclei?)
Hormone released by the duodenum in response to lipids and partially digested proteins in the duodenum
cholecystokinin (CCK)
What hormone leads to the release of bile? What is the source of this hormone? What is its stimulus for release?
cholecystokinin (CCK), enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, hormone secretin
Within the enterocytes, lipids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into ______.
chylomicrons
The _____ of the small intestine facilitate its role in digestion and absorption.
circular folds
Which of the following factors would trigger a concern during a urinalysis?
cloudy urine
Nuclei
clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia
clusters of cell bodies in the PNS
White matter and gray matter in brain
color differentiation in the brain coordinates to myelination. White matter indicates myelination, while gray matter indicates no myelination
Determine the correct order of the structure of the filtration membrane from deep to superficial.
fenestrated glomerular capillary endothelial cells, basal lamina, podocytes
If water moves by osmosis, what is needed in order to produce a concentrated urine?
conc gradient
What type of urine is produced if there is a lot of facultative water reabsorption?
concentrated urine
Secondary active transport
concentration gradient set up by a primary active transport pump is used to drive the transport of a second substance against its concentration gradient via another carrier protein
What is the medullary osmotic gradient?
concentration gradient within the renal medulla
Heat transferred from one object to another through direct contact is called _____________.
conduction
interventricular foramen
connects lateral ventricles to third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
connects the third and fourth ventricles
What is perception?
conscious awareness of sensation
Converting immediate and working memory to long-term memory
consolidation
Excess amino acids are __________.
converted to glucose and fatty acids
Where are somas of upper motor neurons located?
cortex of brainstem centers
Which types of nephrons are the focus of this section? Why?
cortical and juxtamedullary
What creates and maintains the medullary osmotic gradient?
countercurrent mechanism
Which of the following substances may be present in urine in significant amounts when the kidneys are functioning normally?
creatine
The gallbladder releases bile into the __________.
cystic duct
Which duct is connected to the gallbladder?
cystic duct
Ammonia is a byproduct from __________.
deamination
The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is ________.
defacation
The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is __________.
defecation
Which of the following statements is incorrect?
defecation involves sympathetic nervous system
The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is:
defecation.
At the splenic flexure, the colon becomes the __________.
descending colon
Which section of the large intestine begins at the splenic flexure?
descending colon
Simple squamous epithelium is located in the:
descending limb of the nephron loop (loop of Henle).
General Senses
detected by sensory neurons in the skin, muscles or walls of organs
What type of urine is produced if there is little facultative water reabsorption?
dilute urine
the kidney's last chance to regulate fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance before the filtrate becomes urine
The stomach's convex left side is known as its greater curvature, and its concave right side is its lesser curvature • Cardia. The region where the esophagus empties into the stomach is the cardia • Fundus. The dome-shaped top of the stomach is its fundus. • Body. The largest portion of the stomach is its body. • Pyloric antrum. The inferior portion of the stomach is the pyloric antrum (py-LOR-ik AN-trum). • Pylorus. The terminal portion of the stomach is the pylorus(pylor- = "gatekeeper"), which abuts the first portion of the small intestine, the duodenum
What is the third region called?
distal tubule
Countercurrent refers to the:
exchange occurring between fluids moving in opposite directions
Which of the following types of membrane transport does not use carrier proteins?
exocytosis
Which of the following operates voluntarily and is controlled by the cerebral cortex?
external anal sphincter
The muscular band that acts as a valve permitting voluntary control of micturition is called the:
external urethral sphincter.
What type of water reabsorption determines if urine is dilute or concentrated?
facultative
The _____ ligament is on the ventral surface of the liver and divides the liver into right and left lobes.
falciform
Which of the following is not a lobe of the liver?
falciform ligament
What molecule cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?
fatty acid
If a patient has ketoacidosis resulting from uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, then they must use _______________ to generate ATP.
fatty acids
Julia has diabetes mellitus and is experiencing ketoacidosis. What does her body use to generate ATP?
fatty acids
What part of a triglyceride undergoes ß-oxidation?
fatty acids
Smell, taste, vision, hearing, vestibular sensation
five special senses
What are rugae?
folds of the mucosa of the stomach
Vitamin B9 is also known as ______________.
folic acid
Astrocytes
form blood brain barrier
Skull, cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, blood brain barrier
four things that help protect the brain
renal medulla
middle section of the kidney (cortex and medulla form urine)
The principal and intercalated cells of the late distal tubule and collecting system actively secrete _____ from the interstitial fluid into the filtrate.
hydrogen ions
Most digestive enzymes catalyze __________ reactions.
hydrolysis
What type of reaction is catalyzed by most digestive enzymes?
hydrolysis
Feeding centers are located in the ________.
hypothalamus
Feeding centers are located in the __________.
hypothalamus
Feeding centers are located in the:
hypothalamus.
Why is reabsorption in the DT important?
if we excreted the remaining water and sodium ions in the urine, we would still lose about 29 liters of water and a significant portion of our sodium ions every day
What is the final segment of the small intestine?
ileum
In the absence of hormones, the distal tube and the collecting ducts are relatively ______ to water.
impermeable
Describe the permeability of the ascending limb of the nephron loop to water and solutes. How does this impact the osmolarity of the filtrate?
impermeable to water, but they transport NaCl into the tubule cells with the use of Na+/K+/2Cl−symporters As filtrate passes through the ascending limb, it loses solutes and gradually becomes less concentrated as ions are pumped into the interstitial fluid.
The digestion and absorption of nucleic acids begin __________.
in the small intestine
Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can lead to all of the following activities, except __________.
increasing the glomerular filtration rate
The right kidney sits ________ to the left kidney due to the position of the liver.
inferior
What is the first process to occur in the digestive system?
ingestion
What is NOT a major function of the normal flora of the large intestine?
inhibit the immune system
The sympathetic nervous system:
inhibits digestive processes.
renal pelvis
inner region of kidneys that receives urine drained from the calyces
Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate:
is reduced to lactate
Which of the following is NOT a major job of the digestive system?
manufacturing blood cells
What creates the gradient that drives the passive reabsorption of water?
many of the sodium ions as well as glucose and other organic molecules have been reabsorbed. This creates a gradient favoring the passive movement of water by osmosis out of the filtrate
Motility through the alimentary canal consists of all the following different types except __________.
mastication
Where do most upper motor neurons decussate?
medullary pyramids
What hormone is released by the pineal gland?
melatonin
The sum of all biochemical reactions that take place in the human body at any given time is called __________.
metabolism
What term is defined as the sum of the body's chemical reactions?
metabolism
Vitamins are classified as:
micronutrients
The ____ are the smallest folds in the small intestine that create the appearance of a brush border.
microvilli
Which feature of the small intestine creates a brush border appearance upon microscopic examination?
microvilli
What cellular feature is found on the apical surface of the cells lining the proximal tubule? How does this aid in the function of these cells?
microvilli that provide these cells with a large surface area
What process can decrease motor error?
motor learning
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the __________.
mouth
The enzyme salivary amylase catalyzes the reactions that break polysaccharides into oligosaccharides in this organ
mouth
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the:
mouth.
Antiport pumps (antiporters)
move two or more substances in opposite directions
Symport pumps (symporters)
move two or more substances in the same direction
What are gastric pits?
mucosa of the stomach is heavily indented to form deep structures called gastric pits
The layers of the alimentary canal, from innermost to outer layer, are:
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
What are the four tissue layers of the stomach?
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
Name four cells found in gastric glands and their products.
mucous neck cells. As their name implies, these cells secrete mucus much like goblet cells parietal cells, which secrete the hydrochloric acid (HCl) that is responsible for the acidic pH of gastric juice, pepsinogen chief cells, which secrete the inactive precursor enzyme pepsinogen. When pepsinogen encounters an acidic pH, it becomes the active enzyme pepsin enteroendocrine cells, which secrete several hormones that influence digestion. For example, enteroendocrine cells called G cells secrete the hormone gastrin
What is white matter composed of?
myelinated axons or tracts
Which of the following structures are found in the renal medulla?
nephron loop
The functional units of the kidneys are __________.
nephrons
The functional units of the kidneys are:
nephrons.
What substances are secreted in the PT?
nitrogenous waste products and drugs
What percentage of the total Caloric intake should be saturated fats?
no greater than 10%
Do We Really Need to "Detox"? Why or why not?
no, we have our livers
Perception of pain stimuli
nociception
A patient with a BMI of 20 will be classified as __________.
normal weight
Which enzymes catalyze reactions that digest nucleic acids?
nucleases
Which of the following is NOT a nutrient monomer used by the body to generate ATP?
nucleic acids
Periosteal dura
outer layer of the dura mater, fused to bone
renal cortex
outer region of the kidney
A patient with a body mass index (BMI) of 28 will be classified as __________.
overweight
What molecule is both the starting compound and end result of the citric acid cycle?
oxaloacetate
Substances that lose electrons are said to be:
oxidized
The final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain is __________.
oxygen
The molecule that acts as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain is __________.
oxygen
What is required for glucose catabolism to proceed beyond glycolysis?
oxygen
Inactive precursors to enzymes are released by this organ to catalyze reactions that digest proteins in the small intestine
pancreas
Which of the following is not part of the alimentary canal?
pancreas
Reabsorption in which substances pass between adjacent tubular cells is called:
paracellular
During the micturition reflex:
parasympathetic fibers conduct impulses from the spinal cord that cause contraction of the detrusor muscle.
The __________ cells of the stomach produce and secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl).
parietal
The acid pH of the gastric juice is caused by the secretion of hydrochloric acid from the _____.
parietal cells
What are the two layers of the glomeruluar capsule that surrounds the glomerulus? Label these two layers.
parietal layer (pah-RY-eh-tal) and an inner visceral layer
Which of the following enzymes digests proteins?
pepsin
Which of the following proteolytic enzymes is not found in pancreatic juice?
pepsin
Which of the following is paired incorrectly?
pepsin - oligopeptides
Chief cells release:
pepsinogen.
The bolus is able to move down the esophagus even if you are upside-down, because of __________.
peristalsis
What process propels urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder in the ureters?
peristalsis
Glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP) is created by __________.
proteins such as albumin in the blood
Somatic sensory division
provides sensory innervation to the skin, muscles, and joints
Most nutrients, such as glucose, are reabsorbed in the __________.
proximal tubule
The portion of the renal tubule through which filtrate initially flows is known as the __________.
proximal tubule
Where are creatinine, ammonium ions, small amounts of urea, and drugs such as penicillin typically secreted?
proximal tubule
Which of the following structures is made up of simple cuboidal epithelium with many microvilli that help increase surface area?
proximal tubule
Which region has a brush border?
proximal tubule
What is the first region of the renal tubule called? What is its function?
proximal tubule form a brush border, so named because the fine projections resemble the bristles on a brush. This border greatly increases surface area
Sensory First-Order Neurons are typically ______?
pseudounipolar
Sensory neuron that contains an axon split into 2 branches one to PNS and other to CNS
pseudounipolar
The ____ is the terminal portion of the stomach.
pylorus
Describe the shape and location of the liver and gallbladder.
pyramid-shaped liver and small sac known as the gallbladder
In glycolysis, glucose is split into two __________.
pyruvates
The distal tubule is a site for:
reabsorption and secretion
What is the direction of fluid movement during tubular reabsorption?
reclaiming substances from the filtrate, such as water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, and returning them to the blood
Electron transfer reactions are termed oxidation-________ reactions.
reduction
Erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys to:
regulate red blood cell production by the bone marrow.
Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the urinary system?
regulation of leukocyte production
All of the following functions are associated with the kidney except:
retention of metabolic wastes.
Which of the following does NOT increase surface area in the small intestine?
rugae
Which of the following features does not increase surface area in the small intestine?
rugae
Reabsorption of filtered glucose from the filtrate into the cells of the proximal tubule is by:
secondary active transport.
Secretory region
secrete chemicals that trigger changes in their target cells
Hormone released by the duodenum in response to acids and lipids in the duodenum
secretin
The pancreas is stimulated to release its secretions by ___.
secretin
What are the functions of the large intestine?
secretion (primarily in the form of mucus), propulsion, and defecation. In addition, it houses numerous bacteria that perform important functions such as synthesizing vitamins
What four processes occur in the small intestine?
secretion, digestion, absorption, and propulsion.
Describe the three primary functions of the stomach. What function is notably absent from this list?
secretion, propulsion, and digestion - absorption
Which of the following is NOT a process occurring in the oral cavity?
segmentation
Which process is a squeezing motion of the circular layer of smooth muscle in the small intestine?
segmentation
First-order Neuron
sensory neuron that detects the initial stimulus in the PNS
Tentorium cerebelli
separates cerebellum from occipital lobe, resembles tent covering the cerebellum
Identify this section of the large intestine.
sigmoid colon
The distal tubule is made up of:
simple cuboidal epithelium with very few microvilli.
Teleodendria
small branches at the end of an axon
Lipids are assembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons within enterocytes of this organ
small intestine
Most nutrient absorption in the GI tract occurs in the __________.
small intestine
Where does the remainder of protein digestion occur? What enzymes aid that process?
small intestine with the help of pancreatic enzymes and brush border enzymes
Hormone produced by an enteroendocrine cell of the stomach to inhibit acid secretion by the stomach
somatostatin
What is the only complete plant protein?
soy
The circular arrangement of muscles around an opening that controls the passage of material through the alimentary canal is known as a __________.
sphincter
Which of the following is NOT part of the filtration membrane?
squamous epithelial cells of the glomerular capsule
The longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle visible on the outer surfaces of the colon just beneath the serosa are the _____.
taeniae coli
Where does glomerular filtration take place? What is the name for the fluid that exits the glomerulus?
takes place as blood passes through the membrane of the glomerular capillaries and some of the plasma is filtered into the surrounding glomerular space Filtrate
What happens next to the amino acids after they are transported of the enterocyte?
the amino acids are then delivered to the liver for processing via the hepatic portal vein
What is a calorie?In terms of the human diet, what is a Calorie?
the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius amount of energy food provides
The glomerular filtration rate is defined as:
the amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in one minute.
What is the vasa recta? Describe the path it takes in the kidneys.
the capillaries surrounding the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons recta descend into the renal medulla, and then, following a hairpin turn, ascend toward the renal cortex
Carbon dioxide results from the loss of carbons during:
the citric acid cycle.
If NADH and FADH2 fail to be oxidized as part of the electron transport chain (ETC), what is affected?
the electromotive force required to drive the electron transport chain (ETC)
During the swallowing reflex __________.
the epiglottis closes the glottis
What must be removed before amino acids can be oxidized for fuel? What cells carry out this reaction? What is the reaction called?
the hepatocytes first have to remove the amino group by transamination
What is the endocrine function of the pancreas?
the hormones insulin and glucagon, are released from pancreatic islets into the blood and affect most cells in the body
What are the major modifications to filtrate that occur in the collecting ducts and papillary ducts?
the kidney's last chance to regulate fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance before the filtrate becomes urine
Internode
the myelinated segment of an axon
The trigone of the urinary bladder is created by __________.
the openings to the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice
Renal clearance is defined as __________.
the rate at which the kidneys remove a substance from the blood
Urine drains from a major calyx into __________.
the renal pelvis
Urine drains from a major calyx into:
the renal pelvis.
What stimulus initiates the defecation reflex?
the stretch of the rectum
Node of Ranvier
the unmyelinated segment of an axon between the internodes
GFR is regulated by all of the following factors except:
thermoregulation
In the ascending limb of the nephron loop (loop of Henle), the:
thick segment is impermeable to water but permeable to sodium and chloride ions.
Spinal nerves
those originating or traveling to the spinal cord
What are the components of triglycerides?
three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids bound to the modified sugar glycerol
