BMSP 2136 Exam 4

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What is the exocrine function of the pancreas?

enzymes secreted primarily by clusters of acinar cells. These enzymes are released into ducts of the pancreas that empty into the alimentary canal, where they help with digestion

Which of the following is NOT a component of the filtration membrane?

epithelial cells of the glomerular capsule

Saliva is produced by all of the following glands except __________.

esophageal glands

Which of the following is an organ of the alimentary canal?

esophagus

Which of the following organs is part of the alimentary canal?

esophagus

Molecules that can only be obtained from the diet are called __________.

essential nutrients

What is a renal mechanism that raises systemic blood pressure?

increase secretion of renin by the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells

Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can do all of the following, except __________.

increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can do all of the following, EXCEPT:

increase the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

A meal high in protein will cause __________.

increased gastrin release

Which hormone stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering the concentration of glucose in the blood?

insulin

Which of the following tongue papillae do NOT contain taste buds?

filiform

What is the basic function of the kidney?

filter the blood to remove metabolic wastes and then modify the resulting fluid, which allows these organs to maintain fluid, electrolyte, acid-base, and blood pressure homeostasis

Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the digestive system?

filtration

Describe the permeability of the descending limb of the nephron loop to water and solutes. How does this impact the osmolarity of the filtrate?

freely permeable to water, but much less permeable to solutes such as sodium and chloride ions. So water can move out of the thin descending limb cells by osmosis, but few solutes follow osmolarity of the filtrate to increase as it passes down the descending limb and rounds the bend of the loop

Reabsorption moves water and solutes:

from filtrate to blood

nephron

functional units of the kidney—each one is capable of filtering the blood and producing urine

A substance that is reduced __________.

gains electrons

When a substance or molecule is reduced it __________.

gains electrons

Identify the structure labeled with the question mark.

gallbladder

Hormone produced by the duodenum to reduce acid secretion by the stomach

gastric-inhibitory peptide (GIP)

Hormone produced by an enteroendocrine cell of the stomach called a G cell

gastrin

What is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?

gastrin

As a bolus moves down the esophagus, its movement into the stomach is regulated by the __________.

gastroesophageal sphincter

The three layers of the filtration membrane, from deep to superficial, are:

glomerular capillaries, basal lamina, and podocytes.

Filtered fluid leaving the glomerular capillaries immediately enters the:

glomerular capsule

Glomerular filtrate is produced as a result of:

glomerular hydrostatic pressure

The main force that promotes filtration in a nephron is:

glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP).

Filtration happens at the:

glomerulus

A pancreatic hormone that is released in response to a decreasing blood glucose concentration

glucagon

The liver carries out all of the following functions except __________.

glucagon secretion

The synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules such as glycerol or certain amino acids

gluconeogenesis

If there was no reabsorption in the proximal tubule, which of the following useful substances would be lost in urine:

glucose

structure of a triglyceride.

glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Excess dietary proteins may become all of the following EXCEPT:

glycerol.

The process of storing glucose as glycogen is known as __________.

glycogenesis

The process that stores excess glucose in skeletal muscle and hepatocytes

glycogenesis

The process of storing glucose as glycogen is known as:

glycogenesis.

The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose molecules

glycogenolysis

A series of reactions in the cytosol that split glucose

glycolysis

What is a series of 10 anaerobic reactions that occur in the cytosol, during which glucose is split and small amounts of ATP and NADH are generated?

glycolysis

Which of the following processes takes place in the cytosol of a eukaryotic cell?

glycolysis

Select the correct sequence of steps as energy is extracted from glucose during cellular respiration.

glycolysis → acetyl CoA → citric acid cycle → electron transport chain

What cells produce mucus that coat the stomach?

goblet cells

The _____ covers the abdominal organs like an apron.

greater omentum

Select the two factors on which body mass index depends.

height and weight

Select the two factors upon which body mass index depends.

height and weight

The main function of the tongue during digestion is to __________.

help turn food into a bolus and push the bolus posteriorly during swallowing

Which of the following functions is not associated with the kidneys?

hematopoiesis

What does each of these vessels carry? hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, hepatic vein.

hepatic artery, which brings oxygen- rich blood to the liver hepatic portal vein, which brings nutrient-rich hepatic veins, which receive blood from the sinusoids fed by both the hepatic arteries and the hepatic portal vein, and drain into the inferior vena cava

The digestive organs arterial blood supply does not come from the ______.

hepatic portal vein

The portal triad of the liver contains all the following structures except __________.

hepatic sinusoids

What cells compose the liver lobules?

hepatocytes

The pancreatic duct and the common bile duct unite to enter the duodenum at the ____.

hepatopancreatic ampulla

Which sphincter controls release of bile into the duodenum?

hepatopancreatic sphincter

Which of the following food sources is a poor source of minerals?

high-fat foods

The renal artery, renal vein, renal nerves, and ureter all enter and exit through the _____.

hilum

Name and label the opening on the medial surface of the kidney. What enters and exits the kidneys here?

hilum (HY-lum), through which the renal artery, renal vein,renal nerves, and ureter enter and exit the kidney

The indentation on the medial surface of the kidney is the:

hilum.

Structure for forming new declarative memories

hippocampus

Role of the thalamus

homeostasis of heart rate, BP, and digestion - boss of the AN - biological clock - thermostat of the body

renal column

house blood vessels that branch from the renal artery as they travel to the outer portion of the cortex

The liver cannot metabolize ___________ in any significant amount.

ketone bodies

Which of the following is NOT a component of the urinary tract?

kidneys

What is an aquaporin?

kind of water channel in the plasma membrane

Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of lactose into glucose and galactose?

lactase

Which organ functions to absorb significant quantities of water, electrolytes, and vitamins?

large intestine

Explain how the lining of the digestive tract is considered an external body surface.

it is open to the outside on both ends

Where does blood in the arcuate artery travel next on its journey toward the glomerulus?

interlobular artery

Name the sphincters of the anus.

internal anal sphincter external anal sphincter

Structures involved in general visceral sensation

internal organs

The most active site for chemical digestion and absorption is the ____.

jejunum

What is unique about the muscularis externa of the large intestine?

longitudinal layer is not continuous throughout most of its length. Instead, this layer is gathered into three bands or ribbons of muscle called taeniae coli

A substance that is oxidized __________.

loses electrons

A tightly packed group of cells where the ascending limb of the nephron loop and the distal tubule transition are known as the:

macula densa

renal pyramid

made up of parallel bundles of small tubes, with fewer blood vessels than in the renal cortex

The acinar cells of the pancreas secrete their exocrine products into small ducts that drain into the __________.

main pancreatic and accessory pancreatic duct

What are the two ducts that deliver pancreatic juice to the duodenum?

main pancreatic duct merges with the duct from the liver and gallbladder

Homeostasis

maintained by nervous (quicker) and endocrine (hormones) system

Which of the following actions best exemplifies enzymatic hydrolysis?

nutrient breakdown

What is obligatory and facultative water reabsorption? What percentage of water reabsorption is due to each category?

o- water is "obliged" by osmosis to follow solutes that have been reabsorbed (85%) f- which is adjusted by hormones to meet the body's needs and maintain fluid homeostasis (15%)

You would expect leptin deficient mice to be __________.

obese and overeating

What enzyme continues the process of carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine? Where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?

pancreatic amylase. This enzyme is very similar in structure and function to salivary amylase, and catalyzes the reactions that break the remaining polysaccharides into oligosaccharides.

The _____ carries a fluid rich in bicarbonate ions.

pancreatic duct

The acidic chyme is neutralized as it enters the small intestine by ____.

pancreatic juice

Acinar cells of the pancreas release:

pancreatic juice.

The majority of triglyceride digestion occurs in the small intestine facilitated by the enzyme ____.

pancreatic lipase

Which of the following will NOT pass across the filtration membrane?

plasma proteins

The visceral layer of the glomerular capsule is covered with specialized epithelial cells called:

podocytes

What is the name of the cell that forms the visceral layer?

podocytes

Recommended daily intake of carbohydrates should mostly come from:

polysaccharides.

What is found at each corner of a lobule? What three structures compose it?

portal triad: (1) a branch of the hepatic artery called a hepatic arteriole, (2) a branch of the portal vein called a portal venule, and (3) a small bile duct that carries bile.

Where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?

postcentral gyrus

Motor program is located in the ______?

precentral gyrus

Heat is exchanged between the body and the environment by all of the following mechanisms except ________.

precipitation

Heat is exchanged between the body and the environment by all of the following mechanisms except __________.

precipitation

What is the main digestive function of the liver?

produce bile

Ependymal cells

produce cerebrospinal fluid, line ventricles

What is the main job of the pharynx?

propulsion

Which of the following functions of the digestive system allows for food and liquids to pass from one organ to the next?

propulsion

The ______ is not an organ involved with the urinary system.

prostate gland

All of the following physiological processes are carried out by the kidneys except:

protection

Amino acids make up this group

proteins

Where does facultative water reabsorption take place?

late distal tubule and collecting system

What hormone stimulates the satiety center?

leptin

What hormone suppresses the appetite?

leptin

Dietary sources include butter, cream, cheese, and plant oils

lipids

What happens to lipids in a water-based solution? Why does this limit the amount of digestion that occurs?

lipids tend to stick together, forming large globules rather than distributing evenly in a water-based solution

Dietary fats are emulsified by a fluid produced by which accessory organ?

liver

The hepatic portal vein takes the breakdown products of nucleic acids to this organ for metabolism

liver

Where does gluconeogenesis occur?

liver and kidneys

The gallbladder is located on the posterior side of the:

liver.

Bile is produced by the ___ and stored in the ____.

liver; gallbladder

The third set of molars are more commonly known as _____.

wisdom teeth

The metabolic rate will increase __________.

with increased muscle mass

What process catabolizes fatty acids?

ß-oxidation

The most important function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is to:

secrete renin in response to decreased renal blood pressure or blood flow

What type of tissue is the parietal layer?

simple squamous epithelium

Fourth ventricle

situated between the pons and cerebellum

Structures involved in general somatic secretion

skin, muscle, joint

The enzyme pepsin catalyzes reactions that digest proteins in this organ

stomach

The main functions of the ____ are churning, peristalsis, storage, and chemical digestion with the enzyme pepsin.

stomach

Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the liver?

stores and concentrates bile

The micturition reflex is initiated by __________.

stretch receptors in the wall of the bladder

What is the paracellular route?

substances pass between adjacent tubule cells

What is the transcellular route?

substances such as glucose and amino acids must move through the tubule cells

ATP production by direct transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphate-containing molecule to ADP is called __________.

substrate-level phosphorylation

What is metabolism?

sum of all chemical reactions in the body

What is the apical side of a tubule cell? Basolateral?

the membrane facing the tubule lumen, the side of the membrane facing the interstitial fluid

The total amount of energy expended by the body to power all of its processes is called __________.

the metabolic rate

180 L of fluid is filtered out each day, does that mean that we urinate out 180L a day? Of course not! We would rapidly dehydrate! That fluid needs to be absorbed back into the blood stream. That process is called _____________ and your kidneys are very efficient at it

tubular reabsorption

Returning fluid and solutes from filtrate to blood happens via __________.

tubular reabsorption

What is the direction of fluid movement during tubular secretion?

tubular reabsorption in the reverse direction- moved from the peritubular capillary blood into the filtrate to eventually be excreted

Some waste substances are not filtered out. These substances can be moved into the tubule in order to remove them from the body in urine. That process is called ________

tubular secretion

Neuron and neuroglial cell

two primary types of cells in nervous tissue

3 types of neurons directly involved in eliciting a muscle contraction

upper motor, interneurons, lower motor

Which of the following chemicals is a waste product from amino acid catabolism?

urea

Which of the following is a waste product from amino acid catabolism?

urea

Severe renal failure, in which the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is less than 50% of normal, is known as ___.

uremia

Urine is transported from kidney to the urinary bladder by the __________.

ureter

Urine is transported from kidney to the urinary bladder by the:

ureter

Under normal conditions, where should we expect to see most urea?

urine

Consuming alcohol inhibits the release of ADH. As a result __________.

urine volume will increase

The yellow color of urine comes from the presence of:

urochrome.

Which cranial nerve stimulates acid secretion during the stomach's gastric phase?

vagus nerve

The _____ acts as a countercurrent exchanger in the renal medulla.

vasa recta

What is found in the epidural space of the spinal cord?

veins and adipose tissue

The myogenic mechanism acts to restore glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by changing __________.

vessel diameter

The ____ is the space between the lips and cheeks.

vestibule

The _____ forms the outer tissue layer of some abdominal organs.

visceral peritoneum

What creates the mesentery?

visceral peritoneum

Special Senses

vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, taste

Thalamus is the gateway for ______

vision, taste, equilibrium, hearing

Which of these vitamins is water-soluble?

vitamin C

Classified as fat-soluble or water-soluble

vitamins

Micturition involves:

voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions.

The three phases of swallowing, in order, are:

voluntary phase, pharyngeal phase, and esophageal phase.

Gastric pressure increases and stomach and intestinal contents are propelled in the opposite direction during ____.

vomiting

If oxygen was NOT available as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, which cellular respiration product could not be made?

water

What is reabsorbed in the nephron loop?

water

What type of substances are found in the filtrate?

water and small solutes

Which of the following activities will increase your basal metabolic rate (BMR) the most?

weight training 3 times a week

Right and left lateral, third and fourth

what are the four ventricles

What are the two primary functions of bile?

(1) It is required for the digestion and absorption of lipids; and (2) it is the mechanism by which the liver excretes wastes and other substances that the kidneys cannot excrete

What are the three components of the countercurrent mechanism?

(1) a countercurrent multiplier system in the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons, (2) the recycling of urea in the medullary collecting ducts, and (3) a countercurrent exchanger in the vasa recta

What are the four basic processes of metabolism?

(1)harnessing the energy in the chemical bonds of molecules obtained from the diet (2)converting one type of molecule into another for the cell's synthesis reactions (3)carrying out synthesis reactions and assembling macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids (4)breaking down macromolecules into their monomers or other smaller molecules

What happens next to the monosaccharides?

After the monosaccharides cross the basal membrane, they diffuse through the extracellular fluid and into the capillaries in the villus. Once in the blood, they are delivered to the liver via the hepatic portal vein for processing

What should not be found in filtrate?

Albumin

Which of the following hormones causes sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule?

Aldosterone

Which hormones promote facultative water reabsorption?

Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

What are the two types of nephrons? (think about the names, cortical for cortex, juxta for "nearby" and medullary for medulla). Where is each type located? Label them in the figure.

Cortical ( located primarily in the renal cortex) and juxtamedullary nephrons (sits close to the boundary between the renal cortex and the renal medulla)

What does the countercurrent mechanism accomplish in the nephron loop?

Creation of a steep concentration gradient for continued water reabsorption

Glucose and amino acids

Cross easily through protein channels or carriers into BBB

Axoplasm

Cytoplams of an axon

memory of things readily available to consciousness that could be expressed aloud (fact memory)

Declarative Memory

Receptive region

Dendrites and cell body

What anchors the end of the spinal cord to the coccyx?

Denticulate ligaments formed by the spinal pia

Oxygen and lipid based molecules

Diffuse freely permeable can travel in and out of BBB

Where in the nephron loop is the filtrate most concentrated? Most dilute?

Down the descending loop, up the ascending loop

In which organ is chyme mixed with pancreatic juice and bile?

Duodenum

Which segment of the small intestine receives chyme from the stomach?

Duodenum

Describe the three divisions of the small intestine.

Duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Which of the following products is made in the citric acid cycle?

FADH2

Secretion happens via:

Facilitated transport only

What molecule cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?

Fatty acid

What part of a triglyceride undergoes β-oxidation?

Fatty acids

What are rugae?

Folds in the interior stomach

What is the body structure where the medulla oblongata and the brain meet

Foramen Magnus

Which of the following is NOT true of glycolysis?

Four molecules of NADH are spent.

Which of the following is not true of glycolysis?

Four molecules of NADH are spent.

Which of the following statements is not true of glycolysis?

Four molecules of NADH are spent.

The amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in 1 minute is defined as the __________.

GFR

What effect does high blood pressure have on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in the absence of regulatory mechanisms?

GFR will increase.

What are gastric glands?

Gastric glands are unusual in that they contain both endocrine cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream and exocrine cells that secrete an acidic, enzyme-containing fluid called gastric juice into the lumen of the stomach

When would you be likely to produce dilute urine? Describe the appearance and volume of the urine.

The kidneys produce dilute urine when the solute concentration of the body's extracellular fluid is too low, vol increases and it its more clear

What is the next region called? What is the name for the two divisions of this region? What tissue type composes the thin regions? The thick regions?

The nephron loop has two limbs: The descending limb travels toward the renal medulla, turns 180°, and becomes the ascending limb, which climbs back toward the renal cortex. simple squamous epithelium simple cuboidal epithelium

Where is the pancreas located and what are the regions of the pancreas?

The pancreas is mostly located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen Head, body, tail

Which of the following results would be considered abnormal in a urinalysis?

The presence of albumin

What is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?

Gastrin

What is the name of the central gray matter that links the "wings" of gray matter together?

Gray commissure

What separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity?

Hard palate and soft palate

Which of the following characteristics is not associated with a person functioning at basal metabolic rate (BMR)?

Has not eaten in the past 6 hours

Select the two factors upon which body mass index depends.

Height and weight

What is not a major function of the kidneys?

Hematopoiesis

Which of the following sequences is the correct flow of blood through the liver to the inferior vena cava?

Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein - portal triad - hepatic sinusoids - central vein - hepatic vein

What cells compose the liver lobules?

Hepatocytes

Which of the following substances is considered good in higher levels?

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

Which type of lipoprotein transfers cholesterol from the cells in peripheral tissues to the liver for inclusion as part of bile?

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

Describe the digestion of lipids.

Lipids are broken apart by stomach churning and broken down in reactions catalyzed by gastric lipase Lipids enter the small intestine and are emulsified by bile salts Pancreatic lipase catalyzes reactions that digest the lipids into free fatty acids and monoglycerides Bile salts remain associated with the digested lipids to form micelles

What is the basic unit of the liver? Which cell composes it? What is found in the center of it?

Liver lobule, hepatocytes, central vein

needle inserted into subarachnoid space and CSF is withdrawn for analysis

Lumbar Puncture

Which of the following functions are performed by the urinary system?

Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance and remove metabolic wastes

Current USDA guidelines for a healthy diet are called __________.

MyPlate

Where do Second-order sensory neurons end?

Thalamus/brainstem

Production of language (planning and ordering of words)

Broca's Area

arachnoid trabeculae

Bundles of collagen fibers and fibroblasts, anchor the arachnoid mater to the deeper pia mater

What is the bundle of spinal nerve roots extending from the end of the spinal cord?

Cauda Equina

What best exemplifies enzymatic hydrolysis?

Nutrient breakdown

Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near ________.

37.5° C (99.5° F)

How many ATP molecules are made when one glucose molecule is completely oxidized?

38 ATP

What is the maximum number of ATP produced when one glucose is completely oxidized?

38 ATP

A mutation has damaged the formation of oxaloacetate. What process will be impaired?

Citric acid cycle

If a mutation prevents the formation of oxaloacetate, which of the following processes will be impaired?

Citric acid cycle

processing and responding to complex external stimuli, recognizing related stimuli, processing internal stimuli, and planning appropriate responses to stimuli

Cognition

What type of epithelial tissue lines the stomach?

Columnar cells

What is the primary function of copper in the body?

Component of coenzymes of the electron transport chain

When would you be likely to produce concentrated urine? Describe the appearance and volume of the urine.

Concentrated urine results from "turning on" facultative water reabsorption in the late distal tubule and collecting system by the release of ADH, less vol more color

What causes a gastric ulcer?

Conditions that decrease the amount of mucus secreted by these cells can lead to a gastric ulcer

Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)

Consists of neurons that carry signals primarily to thoracic and abdominal viscera. Regulates secretion from certain glands, contraction of smooth muscle, and the contraction of cardiac muscle in heart

Visceral sensory division

Consists of neurons that transmit signals from viscera (organs) such as the heart, stomach, lungs, intestines, kidneys, urinary bladder

Somatic motor divison

Consists of neurons that transmit signals to skeletal muscles

Dura mater

Consists of two layers, periosteal layer (superficial) and meningeal layer (deep)

saturated

Containing the highest amount of substance

Where does the spinal cord end?

Conus Medullaris

What are some other functions of the liver?

Nutrient metabolism, detoxification, excretion

What is obligatory water reabsorption?

Occurs without the regulation of hormones and irrespective of the medullary concentration gradient

Olfaction

Of all the special senses, which does not have a specialized receptor cell?

Which of the following body temperatures is recognized as the defining temperature for hyperthermia?

38.3 °C (101 °F) or higher

Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Cerebellum, Brainstem

4 divisions of the brain

What percentage of the total caloric intake should be carbohydrates?

45-65%

What is the net filtration pressure (NFP) if the glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) is 55 mm Hg, the capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) is 15 mm Hg, and the glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP) is 35 mm Hg?

5 mm Hg

Complete the formula for glucose catabolism (cell reparation): C6H12O6 + ___ --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + _____+ heat

6O2; 38 ATP

Place these vessels in the correct order as blood flows into and through the kidney. 1. afferent arteriole 2. arcuate artery 3. efferent arteriole 4. glomerulus 5. interlobar artery 6. interlobular (cortical radiate) artery 7. renal artery 8. segmental artery

7, 8, 5, 2, 6, 1, 4, 3

About how much water is absorbed by the small intestine? Large intestine?

8, 1

About how much sodium and water has already been reabsorbed before reaching the DT?

85% of the water and 90% of the sodium ions have been reabsorbed

About how much water is processed by the digestive tract each day? what is the source of water?

9 , the alimentary canal absorbs large quantities of water

What two products can be generated from the transamination of an amino acid?

A carbon skeleton and the amino acid glutamate

What causes phenylketonuria?

A deficiency of an enzyme that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine

What is chyme?

A liquid mixture that results from the stomach churning a bolus and mixing it with gastric juice

Falx cerebri

Partition between the right and left cerebral hemispheres, a double fold of meningeal dura

Any element other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that is required by living organisms

minerals

The type of tissue lining the urinary bladder is:

transitional epithelium

Which of the following is a normal property of urine?

translucent

What is the basic function of the urinary tract?

transport, store, and eventually eliminate urine from the body

Most of the lipids ingested in the diet are in what form?

triglycerides

The majority of the body's energy is stored as ________.

triglycerides

The majority of the body's energy is stored as __________.

triglycerides

The majority of the body's energy is stored as:

triglycerides.

In what organelle would you find acetyl CoA formation, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain?

mitochondrion

What is NOT required for glycolysis to occur?

mitochondrion

What is an acinus?

modified simple cuboidal epithelial cell that surrounds duct where cells secrete their products

Where are the juxtaglomerular cells located?

modified smooth muscle cells in the afferent and efferent arterioles

Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of ________.

monosaccharides and disaccharides

Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of __________.

monosaccharides and disaccharides

Fruits, honey, candy, and juices are dietary sources of:

monosaccharides and disaccharides.

What can we consciously control about the defecation reflex?

relaxation of the external anal sphincter

The _____ is an extremely thin layer of dense connective tissue that covers the kidney.

renal capsule

The process of filtration occurs at the __________.

renal corpuscle

Which part of the nephron is responsible for filtering blood?

renal corpuscle

What are the two main divisions of the nephron?

renal corpuscle and renal tubule

The two main divisions of the nephron are the:

renal corpuscle and renal tubule.

In cortical nephrons, the:

renal corpuscle lies in the outer portion of the renal cortex.

The process of filtration occurs at the:

renal corpuscle.

In which kidney region are the renal pyramids located?

renal medulla

The area of the kidney that drains urine is the ______.

renal pelvis

Urine drains from a major calyx into __________.

renal pelvis

What are the three main regions of the kidney?

renal pelvis, renal medulla, renal cortex

Reabsorption is the movement of molecules from the _____ into the _____.

renal tubules; peritubular capillaries

Released by the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells in response to a decrease in systemic blood pressure

renin

What type of information is carried by ascending tracts in the spinal cord?

stimuli to the brain

Cell body, dendrites, axon

three parts of a neuron

4 components of the CNS critical for coordinated movement

- Cerebral cortex - basal nuclei - cerebellum - spinal cord

Structures of CNS that maintain homeostasis

- Nuclei of the brainstem - hypothalamus

2 primary roles of the Spinal Cord

- Relay Station - processing station (can do some integration and processing)

Differences between spinal and brain meninges

- Spinal durmatter lacks periosteal layer and only consists of meningeal layer - spina pia plays a role

How do sensory stimuli reach the brain?

- detected by neurons in PNS and sent as sensory input to the CNS - sensory input sent to the cerebral cortex to be interpreted

Four functions that are largely lateralized

- emotional functions - attention - facial recognition - language-related recognition

What is found in the posterior root? Anterior root?

- sensory - anterior

Interneurons

-Association neurons -Relay messages within the CNS, primarily between sensory and motor neurons -Vast majority of interneurons are multipolar in structure

Integrative functions

-CNS -Analyze and interpret the detected sensory stimuli and determine appropriate response

Brain

-Enclosed completely by skull -Composed of nervous tissue -100 billion neurons that enable everything from regulation of breathing and the processing of information to performing in the creative arts

Myelin sheath

-High lipid content makes it an excellent insulator -Overall effect of insulation is to increase speed of conduction of action potentials

Brainstem

-Maintains homeostasis -Contains certain reflexes -Monitors movement -Integrates and relays information

Cerebellum

-Monitors and coordinates movement

Bipolar neurons

-One axon and one dendrite -Sensory (afferent) neurons -Special Sense organs in the PNS, such as the retina and olfactory epithelium

Mutlipolar

-One axon with two or more dendrites -Motor (efferent) neurons, interneurons -Most neurons in the CNS, motor neurons in the PNS

Motor division

-PNS -Actions performed in response to integration -Efferent division -travel from the brain/spinal cord to the muscles/effectors

Sensory division

-PNS -Gathering information about the internal and external environments -Afferent division -Travel to the brain

Spinal cord

-Passes through the vertebral foramen of the first cervical vertebra and continues inferiorly to the first or second lumbar vertebrae -Contains fewer cells than brain -Enables brain to communicate with most parts of the body below the head and neck -Also carries out certain functions on its own

Cerebrum

-Performs higher function -Interprets sensory stimuli -Plans and initiates movement

Diencephalon

-Processes, integrates, and relays information -Maintains homeostasis -Regulates biological rhythms

Important functions of CSF

-Protects brain by cushioning it -Maintains constant temperature -Removes wastes -Increases buoyancy of the brain so it does not crush itself

Functional processes or nervous system

-Sensory functions -Integrative functions -Motor functions

Dendrites

-Short, high forked processes that resemble the branches of a tree limb -Receive input from other neurons which they transmit in the form of electrical impulses toward the cell body

Pseudounipolar neurons

-Single short processes that splits into two axons (no dendrites) -Sensory (afferent) neurons -Sensory neurons in the PNS associated with touch, pain, and vibration senses

Why do we need sleep?

-energy restoration - brain replenishes oxygen supply

From deep (innermost) to superficial (outermost), the layers of the organs of the alimentary canal are: 1. mucosa 2. muscularis externa 3. serosa (adventitia) 4. submucosa

1, 4, 2, 3

Which of the following products is not the result of ATP hydrolysis?

Adenosine

How much urine, in liters, is typically produced in a 24 hour period?

1.8

How much urine, in liters, is typically produced in a 24-hour period?

1.8

What is net filtration pressure (NFP) in mm Hg in the glomerular capillaries?

10

What is net filtration pressure (NFP) in the glomerular capillaries, in mm Hg?

10

What is the normal value for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in mL/min?

125

What is the normal value for the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in ml/min?

125

How many net ATP are produced as a result of glycolysis?

2 ATP

What are the products of glycolysis?

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

Place the structures of the large intestine listed in their correct sequence, starting at the cecum and ending at the rectum. 1. right colic flexure 2. sigmoid colon 3. ascending colon 4. transverse colon 5. left colic flexure 6. descending colon

3, 1, 4, 5, 6, 2

What is the osmolarity of filtrate in the renal capsule?

300 mOsm

What is the osmolarity of plasma?

300 mOsm

__________ ATP molecules are produced via the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.

34

When one molecule of glucose is completely oxidized, how many ATP molecules are produced?

36 atp

Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near __________.

37.5 °C (99.5 °F)

Thermoregulation involves a steady core body temperature near:

37.5 °C (99.5 °F).

Which of the following is an effect of angiotensin-II (A-II)?

A-II promotes thirst.

Which statement is TRUE regarding antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

ADH increases the permeability of the late distal tubule and cortical collecting ducts to water.

Which of the following does not transport bile?

Accessory pancreatic duct

From which of the following are ketone bodies assembled during ketogenesis?

Acetyl-CoA

From which of the following precursors are ketone bodies assembled during ketogenesis?

Acetyl-CoA

What does the intermediate step produce that is needed for the citric acid cycle to proceed?

Acetyl-CoA

Describe three hormones involved in facultative water reabsorption. Note: we have seen these hormones before, but now that we know how the kidneys work, we can be more specific about how they carry out their effects in the body.

Aldosterone- Both actions increase the reabsorption of sodium ions from the filtrate and the secretion of potassium ions into the filtrate. Note that these actions also indirectly cause reabsorption of water and chloride ions, because as sodium ions are reabsorbed, water and chloride ions passively follow Antidiuretic hormone- causes water retention and reduces urine output ANP- It also appears to inhibit release of ADH and aldosterone, causing fewer sodium ions (and also less water) to be reabsorbed, and so more sodium ions and water to appear in the urine

How are glucose and galactose transported out of the enterocyte on the basal side?

All three monosaccharides cross the basal enterocyte membrane by the same facilitated diffusion mechanism

How is ammonia removed from the body?

Ammonia is removed from the body by the synthesis of urea in the liver urea cycle

Which of the following effects is the result of angiotensin-II (Ang-II)?

Ang-II promotes thirst.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is regulated directly by which of the following hormones?

Angiotensin-II and atrial natriuretic peptide

What two products can be generated from the transamination of an amino acid?

Carbon skeleton and glutamate

What region of the stomach does food first enter after its passage through the relaxed gastroesophageal sphincter?

Cardia

What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate in the ascending limb of the nephron loop? Why?

As the filtrate enters the thick ascending limb, sodium and other ions are pumped out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid. However, because this part of the limb is virtually impermeable to water, water can't follow these solutes. So the concentration of the filtrate decreases as it moves up the ascending limb of the loop

What are the regions of the colon? Name the flexures of the colon.

Ascending colon, Transverse colon, Descending colon, Sigmoid colon Right and left colic flexure

Blood supply to brain

Brain is richly supplied with blood vessels

Axon collaterals

Branches that extend from axons, typically arise at right angles to the axon

What is responsible for the emulsification of lipids in the duodenum?

Bile

What is another important stimulus that leads to the release of bile? How is this a positive feedback loop?

Bile itself, As bile salts re-enter the liver, bile secretion rises dramatically in a positive feedback loop. Bile secretion continues into the duodenum until the duodenum empties, at which point CCK and secretin levels decline.

What is the general equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP

What is the correct general equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP energy

Bile release from the gallbladder is stimulated by the hormone __________.

CCK

____ is a hormone released from the small intestine primarily in response to fatty chyme in the intestinal lumen.

CCK

What hormone triggers the release of bile? What is the source of this hormone?

CCK, enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum

Write out the equation to show the reaction of CO2 in blood. What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction?

CO2+H2O⇄Carbonicanhydrase H2CO3⇄H++HCO−3

What is found in the subarachnoid space?

CSF

To some extent, only if the cell body remains intact can it regenerate

Can damaged neurons in the PNS regenerate?

What runs through the center of the spinal cord?

Central Canal filled with CSF and lined by gray matterr

Responsible for a person's character

Cerebral Cortex

WHere do Third-order sensory neurons end?

Cerebral Cortex

Spinal Cord Bulges

Cervical enlargement and lumbar enlargement (attachment site for spinal nerves)

Name two hormones that stimulate pancreatic secretion.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin

Biological process that follows a set pattern over the 24-hour day

Circadian Rhythm

What are the three features that increase the surface area of the small intestine? How is this an example of the structure-function core principle? Which can be seen with the naked eye? Which forms a brush border?

Circular folds, villi, microvilli Circular folds are largest, brush border is microvilli

Which of the following terms best summarizes ATP hydrolysis?

Exergonic

What substances are reabsorbed in the PT?

Electrolytes, nutrients, bicarbonate ions, and water

Explain how these reactions are coupled together.

Endergonic and exergonic reactions in the cell are coupled—essentially, the cell "pays for" an endergonic reaction with the energy released by an exergonic reaction

What type of reaction requires energy to proceed?

Endergonic reaction

Where are brush border enzymes located? Name three brush border enzymes. What reactions do they catalyze? What are the three products of those reactions?

Enzymes in brush border of small intestine, lactase, maltase, and sucrose, digestion of the sugar lactose, glucose, fructose, and galactose

local anesthetic medication is injected into the epidural space through inserted needle

Epidural Anesthesia

Which of the following is an organ of the alimentary canal?

Esophagus

What hormone directly stimulates the hunger center?

Ghrelin

What are the three major processes in urine formation?

Glomerular filtration, Tubular reabsorption, Tubular secretion

What process synthesizes glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors such as glycerol or certain amino acids?

Gluconeogenesis

Which of the following molecules is broken down in cellular respiration, providing fuel for the cell?

Glucose

Which of the following molecules results from the lipolysis of a triglyceride?

Glycerol and fatty acids

Which of the following results from the lipolysis of a triglyceride?

Glycerol and fatty acids

What are the two main storage materials for nutrient energy in the body?

Glycogen and adipose

What process breaks down glycogen to release glucose into the blood?

Glycogenolysis

Which of the following processes takes place in the cytosol of a human cell?

Glycolysis

What is the correct sequence of events of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, intermediate step, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain

Why does chemical digestion vary for each type of nutrient?

However, chemical digestion varies for each nutrient because digestive enzymes are specific for a single type of bond in a single type of nutrient.

What part of the brain is involved in thermoregulation?

Hypothalamus

How does an adjustment in water reabsorption impact urine concentration?

If less water is reabsorbed, the concentration of the filtrate remains low. If, more water is reabsorbed, the concentration of the filtrate progressively increases as it passes through the late distal tubule and collecting system- more conc

What is the first process to occur in the digestive system?

Ingestion

Axon hillock

Initial portion of an axon where an action potential is generated

Which hormone stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering the concentration of glucose in the blood?

Insulin

Where does blood in the arcuate artery travel next on its journey toward the glomerulus?

Interlobular (cortical radiate) artery

When is carbon dioxide produced during glucose catabolism?

Intermediate step and citric acid cycle

Ventricles

Internal cavities within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid

What integrates signals from sensory neurons?

Interneurons

Which of the following is true about tubular reabsorption?

It involves carrier-mediated transport.

What effect will vasodilation of the afferent arteriole have on glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?

It will increase the GHP and the GFR.

Which of the following processes does not occur during the absorptive state?

Ketogenesis in hepatocytes converts fatty acids to ketone bodies and releases them into the blood.

Describe the kidney shape and location.

Kidney bean, against the posterior abdominal wall and are retroperitoneal organs, meaning they are located posterior to the peritoneal membranes

Axon terminals

Knoblike structure at the end of an axon that contains synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters

Another name for the citric acid cycle is ________________.

Krebs cycle

Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of lactose into glucose and galactose?

Lactase

Which organ functions to absorb significant quantities of water, electrolytes, and vitamins?

Large intestine

Cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm, most metabolically active

memory of things largely procedural or skill-based

Nondeclarative Memory

Which of the following characteristics is associated with unsaturated fatty acids?

May have potential health benefits

Describe the steps of lipid absorption.

Micelles escort lipids to the enterocyte plasma membrane. Lipids diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer and enter the cytosol Lipids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons Chylomicrons are released into the interstitial fluid by exocytosis and then enter a lacteal

How are vitamins classified?

Micronutrients

Which fold of the small intestine creates a brush border appearance upon microscopic examination?

Microvilli

Which of the following is not a nutrient monomer used by the body to generate ATP?

Nucleic acids

Which of the following molecules will not be converted to fat by lipogenesis?

Nucleic acids

Which of the following monomers is not a nutrient used by the body to generate ATP?

Nucleic acids

Describe the process of the countercurrent multiplier system.

NaCl is actively transported from the filtrate in the thick ascending limb into the interstitial fluid, raising its NaCl concentration. The NaCl pumped into the interstitial fluid draws water out of the filtrate in the thin descending limb into the interstitial fluid by osmosis Due to the continuing loss of water, the NaCl concentration of the filtrate increases as it approaches the bottom of the loop The high NaCl concentration of the filtrate that reaches the thick ascending limb allows the NaCl reabsorption to continue

Axon

Nerve fiber, carries signals both toward and away from the cell body. Processes that can generate and conduct action potentials

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves (cranial and spinal)

What is gray matter composed of?

Neuronal cell bodies, neutrophil, glial cells, synapses, and capillaries

Does each step of the countercurrent multiplier occur in sequence?

No, All of these steps are occurring constantly

How are amino acids transported into the enterocyte on the apical side? How are they transported out of the enterocyte on the basal side?

Oligopeptides and free amino acids cross the enterocyte apical membrane primarily by secondary active transport membrane proteins that use a sodium ion gradient established by the Na+/K+ pump. The free amino acids then exit the basal enterocyte membrane by facilitated diffusion, after which they enter the capillaries in the villus.

Pia mater

Only meninx that physically touches the brain

What molecule is both the starting compound and end result of the citric acid cycle?

Oxaloacetate

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

Oxygen

What is the enzyme that begins protein digestion and where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?

Pepsin produced by chief cells and gastric glands, break protein by breaking peptide bonds

What process involves the donation of a phosphate group from ATP to a reactant to "pay" for a cellular process?

Phosphorylation

Axolemma

Plasma membrane of an axon

Nerves

Primary organ of the PNS -Bundle of long neuron arms (axons)that are packaged together with blood vessels and surrounded by connective tissue

Excretion

Process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body

Transduction

Process of converting energy in the form of light, sound, movement, or touch into a neural signal

What is the main job of the pharynx?

Propulsion

What is an exergonic reaction? An endergonic reaction?

Reactions that release energy are known as exergonic reactions endergonic reaction is one that requires the input of energy to proceed

What can we consciously control about the defecation reflex?

Relaxation of the external anal sphincter

Describe the basic functions of the kidneys. What hormone is produced by the kidneys?

Removal of metabolic wastes Regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance Regulation of acid-base balance Maintenance of blood pressure Regulation of erythropoiesis Performing other metabolic functions Hormone: erythropoietin, regulates rbc production in bone marrow

What are the two main subdivisions of the nephron?

Renal corpuscle and renal tubule

Name the three connective tissue layers that surround the kidney and label them in the image

Renal fascia (outter), Adipose capsule, Renal capsule (inner)

Starting with the most superficial layer, list the layers of connective tissue surrounding the kidney.

Renal fascia, adipose capsule, and renal capsule

In which kidney region are the renal pyramids located?

Renal medulla

Where are the macula densa cells located?

Renal tubule btwn acsending limb and distale tubule

Melatonin depresses the activity of which structure?

Reticular formation

Name and label the four lobes of the liver. What separates the left and right lobe?

Right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes falciform ligament

Which of the following does not increase surface area in the small intestine?

Rugae

What is the primary output for S1 axons?

S2

Which of the following sequences correctly follows the flow of blood, from largest to smallest, after the renal artery to just before the peritubular capillaries?

Segmental artery, interlobar artery, arcuate artery, interlobular artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, and efferent arteriole

Which process is a squeezing motion of the circular layer of smooth muscle in the small intestine?

Segmentation

reversible and normal suspension of consciousness

Sleep

Where do First-order sensory neurons end?

Spinal cord

What initiates the micturition reflex?

Stretch receptors in the wall of the urinary bladder signal the sacral region of the spinal cord.

Arachnoid villi (granulations)

Structure that drains CSF -Project up through the meningeal dura into the dural sinuses

Which of the following micronutrients is considered a major mineral?

Sulfur

What is found in pancreatic juice?

The collective secretions of the pancreatic acinar and duct cells

What is lipolysis?

The fatty acids and glycerol are liberated by an enzyme-catalyzed process known as lipolysis

How is dilute urine produced?

The filtrate entering the late distal tubule is already less concentrated than the surrounding interstitial fluid. For this reason, the kidneys simply have to not reabsorb any additional water from the filtrate, or "turn off" facultative water reabsorption, to produce dilute urine

What are two ways that lipid globules can be broken apart?

The first is by mechanical digestion—mastication in the mouth, churning in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine. These movements scatter lipids and prevent them from coming together. The second way involves bile salts in the small intestine

Look at the image above and imagine fluid leaking out of the capillary (like a leaky hose). Where would the fluid go? What is the fluid called?

The fluid that passes through the filter to leave the glomerular capillaries, which is known as filtrate, first enters the capsular space, then flows into the renal tubule lumen

What is the primary function of the gallbladder?

The gallbladder stores bile, concentrates it (removing water), and releases it when stimulated

Describe the glomerulus. How is it different from other capillaries?

The glomerulus is a group of looping fenestrated capillaries. These capillaries are called fenestrated because of the large pores, or fenestrations (fenestre- = "window"), present within their plasma membranes and between their endothelial cells.

The glomerulus is a group of _______________ capillaries, which allow large volumes of fluids and solutes to be exchanged.

fenestrated

Which of the following statements regarding urethral anatomy is incorrect?

The male urethra is shorter than the female urethra.

What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate in the descending limb of the nephron loop? Why?

The thin descending limb of the nephron loop is permeable to water but not solutes, as you learned, so water flows from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid by osmosis, but very few solutes follow. This causes the filtrate to become progressively more concentrated as it travels down the loop

papilla

The tip of each renal pyramid tapers into a slender papilla, which borders on the first urine-draining structure

What is a haustrum? What is a epiploic appendage? Label these structures in the image on the previous page.

Their constant tension bunches the colon into pockets referred to as haustra

Where are the last enzymes in the protein digestion process located? What do they catalyze?

There are multiple brush border enzymes that catalyze the digestion of oligopeptides into free amino acids

Choroid plexuses

These are networks of capillaries found in the walls of the ventricles of the brain that produce cerebrospinal fluid.

What happens to excess amino acids?

They are converted to glucose and fatty acids.

How do osmotic laxatives work?

They cause water retention in the stool material by the process of osmosis.

Which part of the nephron loop are chloride ions actively reabsorbed?

Thick ascending limb

Which statement describes the citric acid cycle?

This process produces some ATP and carbon dioxide in the mitochondrion.

Which statement describes glycolysis?

This process splits glucose in half and produces 2 ATPs for each glucose.

Which statement describes the electron transport chain?

This process uses energy captured from electrons flowing to oxygen to produce most of the ATPs in cellular respiration.

Why are the pancreatic enzymes released in an inactive form?

This protects the pancreas from autodigestion, or digestion of its cells by its own enzymes

Cranial nerves

Those originating or traveling to the brain

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

Three cranial meninges (outermost to innermost)

In which portion of the alimentary canal is chyme mixed with pancreatic juice and bile?

duodenum

Which segment of the small intestine receives chyme from the stomach?

duodenum

The glomerular capillaries are drained by the ______.

efferent arterioles

Which of the following is a dietary source for lipids?

eggs

What drives the reabsorption of anions such as chloride and bicarbonate?

electrical gradient is created that drives the absorption of anions such as chloride and bicarbonate ions

The process by which bile breaks up large fat droplets into smaller ones is called __________.

emulsification

The crown of a tooth is covered by __________.

enamel

The crown of a tooth is covered by:

enamel.

Name a pancreatic enzyme that aids in protein digestion. What is the inactive form of this enzyme called?

Trypsinogen, trypsin

Which of the following is NOT true about tubular reabsorption?

Tubular reabsorption is entirely a passive process.

Which statement best describes the function of tubular reabsorption?

Tubular reabsorption reclaims items from filtrate and returns them to the blood.

What are the organs of the urinary tract?

Ureters, urethra, and urinary bladder

major calyx

Urine from three to four minor calyces drains into a larger major calyx

How active are the cells in the PT? What are the primary roles of these cells?

Very active, very metabolically active remarkably rapid reabsorption

What creates the mesentery?

Visceral peritoneum

Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract with water and polar solutes. What water-soluble vitamin is the exception?

Vitamin B12

Which of the following vitamins is absorbed in the ileum after binding to intrinsic factor?

Vitamin B12

Which of the following vitamins is water soluble?

Vitamin C

Which of these vitamins is water soluble?

Vitamin C

Which vitamin is required for calcium ion homeostasis and bone growth?

Vitamin D

What is facultative water reabsorption?

Water reabsorption that is controlled by hormones to maintain a constant extracellular fluid osmolarity

Understanding language and linking word with symbolic meaning

Wernicke's Area

Central Nervous system and Peripheral nervous system

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

minor calyx

a cup-shaped extension of the pelvis that encircles the apex of a pyramid

Which of the following would be a "potassium sparing diuretic," a drug that causes an increase in water loss, and a decrease in potassium loss in the kidneys?

a drug that blocks the effect of aldosterone

What is intrinsic factor? Where is it produced? What is its function?

a molecule produced by the parietal cells of the stomach, absorption of vitamin B12

Each of the following characteristics is typical of urine except __________.

a pH of 3.0

Each of the following is typical of urine except __________.

a pH of 3.0

A glomerulus is:

a set of capillaries within the renal corpuscle.

What do endergonic reactions require?

energy

What is the name of the cells that line the lumen of the small intestine and what do they produce?

enterocytes, produce multiple digestive enzymes, hormones, and mucus. These enzymes, along with those released by the pancreas, are responsible for the bulk of chemical digestion

Lacteals __________.

absorb the products of fat digestion

Which process is NOT a main function of the stomach?

absorption

Food does not normally come in contact with the _____, but they are involved in secretion and digestion.

accessory organs

Which of the following ducts does not transport bile?

accessory pancreatic duct

During lipogenesis, fatty acids are synthesized from _______________.

acetyl-CoA

If a waste molecule is in the peritubular capillary lumen, which structures must it pass through in order to move into the tubule lumen? What is this process called?

across or between the tubule cells, into the interstitial fluid, and finally across or between the endothelial cells of the peritubular capillaries to re-enter the blood tubular reabsorption?

ATP hydrolysis would yield all of the following, EXCEPT __________.

adenosine

What external covering protects the kidney from physical shock?

adipose capsule

The three tissue layers of the ureter, from superficial to deep, are:

adventitia, muscularis, and mucosa.

What should NOT be found in filtrate?

albumin

Which of the following solutes are not able to pass through the filtration membrane in a healthy kidney?

albumin

Which of the following solutes should not be found in filtrate?

albumin

Fenestrated glomerular capillaries are typically impermeable to:

albumin.

Which hormones promote facultative water reabsorption?

aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Transport maximum

all of their sites become filled, the carrier proteins are said to be saturated

What type of organic molecule must undergo transamination prior to being used for ATP synthesis?

amino acids

Protein catabolism results in:

amino acids.

The release of urea in the urine is a mechanism for the body to rid itself of ________.

ammonia

The release of urea in the urine is a mechanism for the body to rid itself of __________.

ammonia

The conversion of pepsinogen into the active form, pepsin, requires:

an acidic pH.

How does the muscularis externa of the stomach differ from the typical arrangement in the digestive tract?

an additional inner layer of smooth muscle in the stomach's body with its fibers oriented obliquely. This oblique layer of smooth muscle allows the stomach to perform churning

What will NOT stimulate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)?

an increase in systemic blood pressure

The reaction A + B + energy --> AB is a(n) __________.

anabolic reaction

What is anabolism?

anabolic reaction is one in which smaller molecules are combined to make a larger molecule

renal sinus

anchors the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves in place

Converts angiotensin-I (A-I) to active angiotensin-II (A-II)

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

Promotes the release of aldosterone by the adrenal glands

angiotensin-II (A-II)

Promotes vasoconstriction of efferent arterioles and systemic blood vessels

angiotensin-II (A-II)

Somas of lower motor neurons are located in _______

anterior horn

Inserts aquaporins to increase water reabsorption by cells in the late distal tubule and cortical collecting duct

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

The main hormone regulating facultative water reabsorption is:

antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Essential nutrients:

are only obtained through the diet.

The filtrate is most concentrated __________.

at the turn of the nephron loop

Triggers urinary excretion of sodium ions

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

When blood volume increases, ______ will be released.

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Conducting region

axon

What are "normal flora" or "gut flora"? List four benefits of glut flora.

bacteria that make up as much as 60% of the dry mass of feces produce vitamins, metabolize undigested materials, deter the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulate the immune system

renal corpuscle & renal tubule

basic structure of a nephron, which consists of two main components: the globe-shaped renal corpuscle, and a long, snaking tube of epithelium called the renal tubule

Why is sodium ion reabsorption so important?

because this process turns out to be the key to reabsorbing many other substances in the proximal tubule

Where does carbohydrate digestion begin? What is the enzyme that begins carbohydrate digestion and where is it produced? What reaction does it catalyze?

begins in the mouth with the help of salivary amylase from the salivary glands, which catalyzes the reactions that break long polysaccharides into shorter oligosaccharides

Which of the following body temperatures is recognized as hypothermia?

below 32 °C (89.6 °F)

Where is the spinal epidural space located>

between meningeal dura and walls of vertebral foramina

What is responsible for the emulsification of lipids in the duodenum?

bile

Damaged hepatocytes will impair __________.

bile production

Damaged hepatocytes will impair:

bile production.

Emulsification requires __________.

bile salts

The removal of the gallbladder will affect:

bile storage.

The reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule helps regulate __________.

blood pH

The reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule helps regulate:

blood pH.

Once carbohydrates in the small intestine lumen are broken down into monosaccharides, how are they transported into the enterocyte?

both glucose and galactose are transported across the enterocyte's apical membrane by conc gradient

Central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Where do upper motor neurons end?

brainstem

What is emulsification? What is an emulsion?

breaks up the lipid globules into smaller pieces by the process of emulsification. The end result is multiple tiny lipid droplets each coated with bile salts, a mixture called an emulsion

Before carbohydrates are absorbed, __________ digest disaccharides into monosaccharides.

brush border enzymes

Tracts

bundles of axons in the CNS

Nerves

bundles of axons in the PNS

Starting at the tip of the medullary pyramid, the correct sequence of structures that urine passes through on its way out of the body is:

calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.

No, they almost never regenerate

can damaged neurons in the CNS regenerate?

No, they are amitotic, no centrioles

can neurons divide?

What is the name of the space between the two layers? Label it above.

capsular space

Recommended daily intake of Calories for this category consists of about 45—65% of the diet

carbohydrates

Chemical digestion breaks down ___ into ____.

carbohydrates; monosaccharides

The esophagus empties into the __________ region of the stomach.

cardia

What region of the stomach does food first enter after its passage through the relaxed gastroesophageal sphincter?

cardia

Primary active transport

carrier protein "pump" directly uses ATP to move a substance against its concentration gradient

Facilitated diffusion

carrier protein passively transports a substance with its concentration gradient, without using energy from ATP

What is catabolism?

catabolic reaction is one in which a substance is broken down into smaller parts

The breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose in the body is classified as __________.

catabolism

The breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose in the body is classified as:

catabolism.

The first portion of the large intestine is the:

cecum

What are the three segments of the large intestine?

cecum, the colon, and the rectum

What is found in the anterior horn?

cell bodies of motor neurons

Soma

cell body

What is a major difference in the histology of the cells in the DT compared to the PT?

cells of the distal tubule lack microvilli

Endothelial cells

cells that line all capillaries -Specialized to allow only selected substances to enter its ECF, therefore effectively act as a barrier that prevents other substances from doing so

The ____ of teeth is composed of material most similar to bone.

cementum

The smell, sight, or even thought of food can activate the ____ of gastric acid secretion in the stomach.

cephalic phase

Input from one is needed for smooth, fluid movement?

cerebellum (and basal nuclei?)

Hormone released by the duodenum in response to lipids and partially digested proteins in the duodenum

cholecystokinin (CCK)

What hormone leads to the release of bile? What is the source of this hormone? What is its stimulus for release?

cholecystokinin (CCK), enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, hormone secretin

Within the enterocytes, lipids are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into ______.

chylomicrons

The _____ of the small intestine facilitate its role in digestion and absorption.

circular folds

Which of the following factors would trigger a concern during a urinalysis?

cloudy urine

Nuclei

clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

Ganglia

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

White matter and gray matter in brain

color differentiation in the brain coordinates to myelination. White matter indicates myelination, while gray matter indicates no myelination

Determine the correct order of the structure of the filtration membrane from deep to superficial.

fenestrated glomerular capillary endothelial cells, basal lamina, podocytes

If water moves by osmosis, what is needed in order to produce a concentrated urine?

conc gradient

What type of urine is produced if there is a lot of facultative water reabsorption?

concentrated urine

Secondary active transport

concentration gradient set up by a primary active transport pump is used to drive the transport of a second substance against its concentration gradient via another carrier protein

What is the medullary osmotic gradient?

concentration gradient within the renal medulla

Heat transferred from one object to another through direct contact is called _____________.

conduction

interventricular foramen

connects lateral ventricles to third ventricle

Cerebral aqueduct

connects the third and fourth ventricles

What is perception?

conscious awareness of sensation

Converting immediate and working memory to long-term memory

consolidation

Excess amino acids are __________.

converted to glucose and fatty acids

Where are somas of upper motor neurons located?

cortex of brainstem centers

Which types of nephrons are the focus of this section? Why?

cortical and juxtamedullary

What creates and maintains the medullary osmotic gradient?

countercurrent mechanism

Which of the following substances may be present in urine in significant amounts when the kidneys are functioning normally?

creatine

The gallbladder releases bile into the __________.

cystic duct

Which duct is connected to the gallbladder?

cystic duct

Ammonia is a byproduct from __________.

deamination

The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is ________.

defacation

The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is __________.

defecation

Which of the following statements is incorrect?

defecation involves sympathetic nervous system

The final process to occur in the alimentary canal is:

defecation.

At the splenic flexure, the colon becomes the __________.

descending colon

Which section of the large intestine begins at the splenic flexure?

descending colon

Simple squamous epithelium is located in the:

descending limb of the nephron loop (loop of Henle).

General Senses

detected by sensory neurons in the skin, muscles or walls of organs

What type of urine is produced if there is little facultative water reabsorption?

dilute urine

the kidney's last chance to regulate fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance before the filtrate becomes urine

The stomach's convex left side is known as its greater curvature, and its concave right side is its lesser curvature • Cardia. The region where the esophagus empties into the stomach is the cardia • Fundus. The dome-shaped top of the stomach is its fundus. • Body. The largest portion of the stomach is its body. • Pyloric antrum. The inferior portion of the stomach is the pyloric antrum (py-LOR-ik AN-trum). • Pylorus. The terminal portion of the stomach is the pylorus(pylor- = "gatekeeper"), which abuts the first portion of the small intestine, the duodenum

What is the third region called?

distal tubule

Countercurrent refers to the:

exchange occurring between fluids moving in opposite directions

Which of the following types of membrane transport does not use carrier proteins?

exocytosis

Which of the following operates voluntarily and is controlled by the cerebral cortex?

external anal sphincter

The muscular band that acts as a valve permitting voluntary control of micturition is called the:

external urethral sphincter.

What type of water reabsorption determines if urine is dilute or concentrated?

facultative

The _____ ligament is on the ventral surface of the liver and divides the liver into right and left lobes.

falciform

Which of the following is not a lobe of the liver?

falciform ligament

What molecule cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?

fatty acid

If a patient has ketoacidosis resulting from uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, then they must use _______________ to generate ATP.

fatty acids

Julia has diabetes mellitus and is experiencing ketoacidosis. What does her body use to generate ATP?

fatty acids

What part of a triglyceride undergoes ß-oxidation?

fatty acids

Smell, taste, vision, hearing, vestibular sensation

five special senses

What are rugae?

folds of the mucosa of the stomach

Vitamin B9 is also known as ______________.

folic acid

Astrocytes

form blood brain barrier

Skull, cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, blood brain barrier

four things that help protect the brain

renal medulla

middle section of the kidney (cortex and medulla form urine)

The principal and intercalated cells of the late distal tubule and collecting system actively secrete _____ from the interstitial fluid into the filtrate.

hydrogen ions

Most digestive enzymes catalyze __________ reactions.

hydrolysis

What type of reaction is catalyzed by most digestive enzymes?

hydrolysis

Feeding centers are located in the ________.

hypothalamus

Feeding centers are located in the __________.

hypothalamus

Feeding centers are located in the:

hypothalamus.

Why is reabsorption in the DT important?

if we excreted the remaining water and sodium ions in the urine, we would still lose about 29 liters of water and a significant portion of our sodium ions every day

What is the final segment of the small intestine?

ileum

In the absence of hormones, the distal tube and the collecting ducts are relatively ______ to water.

impermeable

Describe the permeability of the ascending limb of the nephron loop to water and solutes. How does this impact the osmolarity of the filtrate?

impermeable to water, but they transport NaCl into the tubule cells with the use of Na+/K+/2Cl−symporters As filtrate passes through the ascending limb, it loses solutes and gradually becomes less concentrated as ions are pumped into the interstitial fluid.

The digestion and absorption of nucleic acids begin __________.

in the small intestine

Sympathetic stimulation of the kidney can lead to all of the following activities, except __________.

increasing the glomerular filtration rate

The right kidney sits ________ to the left kidney due to the position of the liver.

inferior

What is the first process to occur in the digestive system?

ingestion

What is NOT a major function of the normal flora of the large intestine?

inhibit the immune system

The sympathetic nervous system:

inhibits digestive processes.

renal pelvis

inner region of kidneys that receives urine drained from the calyces

Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate:

is reduced to lactate

Which of the following is NOT a major job of the digestive system?

manufacturing blood cells

What creates the gradient that drives the passive reabsorption of water?

many of the sodium ions as well as glucose and other organic molecules have been reabsorbed. This creates a gradient favoring the passive movement of water by osmosis out of the filtrate

Motility through the alimentary canal consists of all the following different types except __________.

mastication

Where do most upper motor neurons decussate?

medullary pyramids

What hormone is released by the pineal gland?

melatonin

The sum of all biochemical reactions that take place in the human body at any given time is called __________.

metabolism

What term is defined as the sum of the body's chemical reactions?

metabolism

Vitamins are classified as:

micronutrients

The ____ are the smallest folds in the small intestine that create the appearance of a brush border.

microvilli

Which feature of the small intestine creates a brush border appearance upon microscopic examination?

microvilli

What cellular feature is found on the apical surface of the cells lining the proximal tubule? How does this aid in the function of these cells?

microvilli that provide these cells with a large surface area

What process can decrease motor error?

motor learning

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the __________.

mouth

The enzyme salivary amylase catalyzes the reactions that break polysaccharides into oligosaccharides in this organ

mouth

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the:

mouth.

Antiport pumps (antiporters)

move two or more substances in opposite directions

Symport pumps (symporters)

move two or more substances in the same direction

What are gastric pits?

mucosa of the stomach is heavily indented to form deep structures called gastric pits

The layers of the alimentary canal, from innermost to outer layer, are:

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.

What are the four tissue layers of the stomach?

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa

Name four cells found in gastric glands and their products.

mucous neck cells. As their name implies, these cells secrete mucus much like goblet cells parietal cells, which secrete the hydrochloric acid (HCl) that is responsible for the acidic pH of gastric juice, pepsinogen chief cells, which secrete the inactive precursor enzyme pepsinogen. When pepsinogen encounters an acidic pH, it becomes the active enzyme pepsin enteroendocrine cells, which secrete several hormones that influence digestion. For example, enteroendocrine cells called G cells secrete the hormone gastrin

What is white matter composed of?

myelinated axons or tracts

Which of the following structures are found in the renal medulla?

nephron loop

The functional units of the kidneys are __________.

nephrons

The functional units of the kidneys are:

nephrons.

What substances are secreted in the PT?

nitrogenous waste products and drugs

What percentage of the total Caloric intake should be saturated fats?

no greater than 10%

Do We Really Need to "Detox"? Why or why not?

no, we have our livers

Perception of pain stimuli

nociception

A patient with a BMI of 20 will be classified as __________.

normal weight

Which enzymes catalyze reactions that digest nucleic acids?

nucleases

Which of the following is NOT a nutrient monomer used by the body to generate ATP?

nucleic acids

Periosteal dura

outer layer of the dura mater, fused to bone

renal cortex

outer region of the kidney

A patient with a body mass index (BMI) of 28 will be classified as __________.

overweight

What molecule is both the starting compound and end result of the citric acid cycle?

oxaloacetate

Substances that lose electrons are said to be:

oxidized

The final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain is __________.

oxygen

The molecule that acts as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain is __________.

oxygen

What is required for glucose catabolism to proceed beyond glycolysis?

oxygen

Inactive precursors to enzymes are released by this organ to catalyze reactions that digest proteins in the small intestine

pancreas

Which of the following is not part of the alimentary canal?

pancreas

Reabsorption in which substances pass between adjacent tubular cells is called:

paracellular

During the micturition reflex:

parasympathetic fibers conduct impulses from the spinal cord that cause contraction of the detrusor muscle.

The __________ cells of the stomach produce and secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl).

parietal

The acid pH of the gastric juice is caused by the secretion of hydrochloric acid from the _____.

parietal cells

What are the two layers of the glomeruluar capsule that surrounds the glomerulus? Label these two layers.

parietal layer (pah-RY-eh-tal) and an inner visceral layer

Which of the following enzymes digests proteins?

pepsin

Which of the following proteolytic enzymes is not found in pancreatic juice?

pepsin

Which of the following is paired incorrectly?

pepsin - oligopeptides

Chief cells release:

pepsinogen.

The bolus is able to move down the esophagus even if you are upside-down, because of __________.

peristalsis

What process propels urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder in the ureters?

peristalsis

Glomerular colloid osmotic pressure (GCOP) is created by __________.

proteins such as albumin in the blood

Somatic sensory division

provides sensory innervation to the skin, muscles, and joints

Most nutrients, such as glucose, are reabsorbed in the __________.

proximal tubule

The portion of the renal tubule through which filtrate initially flows is known as the __________.

proximal tubule

Where are creatinine, ammonium ions, small amounts of urea, and drugs such as penicillin typically secreted?

proximal tubule

Which of the following structures is made up of simple cuboidal epithelium with many microvilli that help increase surface area?

proximal tubule

Which region has a brush border?

proximal tubule

What is the first region of the renal tubule called? What is its function?

proximal tubule form a brush border, so named because the fine projections resemble the bristles on a brush. This border greatly increases surface area

Sensory First-Order Neurons are typically ______?

pseudounipolar

Sensory neuron that contains an axon split into 2 branches one to PNS and other to CNS

pseudounipolar

The ____ is the terminal portion of the stomach.

pylorus

Describe the shape and location of the liver and gallbladder.

pyramid-shaped liver and small sac known as the gallbladder

In glycolysis, glucose is split into two __________.

pyruvates

The distal tubule is a site for:

reabsorption and secretion

What is the direction of fluid movement during tubular reabsorption?

reclaiming substances from the filtrate, such as water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, and returning them to the blood

Electron transfer reactions are termed oxidation-________ reactions.

reduction

Erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys to:

regulate red blood cell production by the bone marrow.

Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of the urinary system?

regulation of leukocyte production

All of the following functions are associated with the kidney except:

retention of metabolic wastes.

Which of the following does NOT increase surface area in the small intestine?

rugae

Which of the following features does not increase surface area in the small intestine?

rugae

Reabsorption of filtered glucose from the filtrate into the cells of the proximal tubule is by:

secondary active transport.

Secretory region

secrete chemicals that trigger changes in their target cells

Hormone released by the duodenum in response to acids and lipids in the duodenum

secretin

The pancreas is stimulated to release its secretions by ___.

secretin

What are the functions of the large intestine?

secretion (primarily in the form of mucus), propulsion, and defecation. In addition, it houses numerous bacteria that perform important functions such as synthesizing vitamins

What four processes occur in the small intestine?

secretion, digestion, absorption, and propulsion.

Describe the three primary functions of the stomach. What function is notably absent from this list?

secretion, propulsion, and digestion - absorption

Which of the following is NOT a process occurring in the oral cavity?

segmentation

Which process is a squeezing motion of the circular layer of smooth muscle in the small intestine?

segmentation

First-order Neuron

sensory neuron that detects the initial stimulus in the PNS

Tentorium cerebelli

separates cerebellum from occipital lobe, resembles tent covering the cerebellum

Identify this section of the large intestine.

sigmoid colon

The distal tubule is made up of:

simple cuboidal epithelium with very few microvilli.

Teleodendria

small branches at the end of an axon

Lipids are assembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons within enterocytes of this organ

small intestine

Most nutrient absorption in the GI tract occurs in the __________.

small intestine

Where does the remainder of protein digestion occur? What enzymes aid that process?

small intestine with the help of pancreatic enzymes and brush border enzymes

Hormone produced by an enteroendocrine cell of the stomach to inhibit acid secretion by the stomach

somatostatin

What is the only complete plant protein?

soy

The circular arrangement of muscles around an opening that controls the passage of material through the alimentary canal is known as a __________.

sphincter

Which of the following is NOT part of the filtration membrane?

squamous epithelial cells of the glomerular capsule

The longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle visible on the outer surfaces of the colon just beneath the serosa are the _____.

taeniae coli

Where does glomerular filtration take place? What is the name for the fluid that exits the glomerulus?

takes place as blood passes through the membrane of the glomerular capillaries and some of the plasma is filtered into the surrounding glomerular space Filtrate

What happens next to the amino acids after they are transported of the enterocyte?

the amino acids are then delivered to the liver for processing via the hepatic portal vein

What is a calorie?In terms of the human diet, what is a Calorie?

the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius amount of energy food provides

The glomerular filtration rate is defined as:

the amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys in one minute.

What is the vasa recta? Describe the path it takes in the kidneys.

the capillaries surrounding the nephron loops of juxtamedullary nephrons recta descend into the renal medulla, and then, following a hairpin turn, ascend toward the renal cortex

Carbon dioxide results from the loss of carbons during:

the citric acid cycle.

If NADH and FADH2 fail to be oxidized as part of the electron transport chain (ETC), what is affected?

the electromotive force required to drive the electron transport chain (ETC)

During the swallowing reflex __________.

the epiglottis closes the glottis

What must be removed before amino acids can be oxidized for fuel? What cells carry out this reaction? What is the reaction called?

the hepatocytes first have to remove the amino group by transamination

What is the endocrine function of the pancreas?

the hormones insulin and glucagon, are released from pancreatic islets into the blood and affect most cells in the body

What are the major modifications to filtrate that occur in the collecting ducts and papillary ducts?

the kidney's last chance to regulate fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance before the filtrate becomes urine

Internode

the myelinated segment of an axon

The trigone of the urinary bladder is created by __________.

the openings to the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice

Renal clearance is defined as __________.

the rate at which the kidneys remove a substance from the blood

Urine drains from a major calyx into __________.

the renal pelvis

Urine drains from a major calyx into:

the renal pelvis.

What stimulus initiates the defecation reflex?

the stretch of the rectum

Node of Ranvier

the unmyelinated segment of an axon between the internodes

GFR is regulated by all of the following factors except:

thermoregulation

In the ascending limb of the nephron loop (loop of Henle), the:

thick segment is impermeable to water but permeable to sodium and chloride ions.

Spinal nerves

those originating or traveling to the spinal cord

What are the components of triglycerides?

three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids bound to the modified sugar glycerol


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