Buyer Test 2

5-6. Describe two factors that can lead to stimulus adaptation. Five factors can lead to stimulus adaptation:

• Intensity: Less-intense stimuli (e.g., soft sounds or dim colors) habituate because they have less sensory impact. • Duration: Stimuli that require relatively lengthy exposure in order to be processed tend to habituate because they require a long attention span. • Discrimination: Simple stimuli tend to habituate because they do not require attention to detail. • Exposure: Frequently encountered stimuli tend to habituate as the rate of exposure increases. • Relevance: Stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant will habituate because they fail to attract attention.

5-9. What is a positioning strategy? What are some ways marketers can position their products? A positioning strategy is a fundamental part of a company's marketing efforts as it uses elements of the marketing mix (i.e., product design, price, distribution, and marketing communications) to influence the consumer's interpretation of its meaning. Marketers can use many dimensions to carve out a brand's position in the marketplace. These include:

• Lifestyle: Grey Poupon mustard is a "higher-class" condiment. • Price leadership: L'Oreal's Noisôme brand face cream is sold in upscale beauty shops, whereas its Plenitude brand is available for one-sixth the price in discount stores—even though both are based on the same chemical formula. • Attributes: Bounty paper towels are "the quicker picker upper." • Product class: The Mazda Miata is a sporty convertible. • Competitors: Northwestern Insurance is "the quiet company." • Occasions: Wrigley's gum is an alternative at times when smoking is not permitted. • Users: Levi's Dockers are targeted primarily to men in their 20s to 40s. • Quality: At Ford, "Quality is job 1."

7-1. List three dimensions by which we can describe the self-concept.

1. Content—facial attractiveness versus mental aptitude; 2. Positivity or negativity—self-esteem; and 3. Intensity, stability over time, and accuracy—the degree to which one's self-assessment corresponds to reality.

8-8. Describe a multi-attribute attitude model, listing its key components

A multi-attribute model assumes that a consumer's attitude (evaluation) toward an attitude object (Ao) depends upon the beliefs he or she has about several or many attributes of the object and the importance of those attributes. The use of a multi-attribute model implies that identifying these specific beliefs and combining them to derive a measure of the consumer's overall attitude can predict an attitude toward a product or brand.

6-4. Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a product in a commercial where a popular song is playing in the background?

A popular song might also be heard in many situations in which the product is not present. When the unconditioned stimulus appears in the absence of the conditioned stimulus, it can lead to extinction of the effect of conditioning

7-3. Have ideals of beauty in the United States changed over the last 50 years? If so, how?

A study of almost 50 years of Playboy centerfolds shows that the women have become less shapely and more androgynous since Marilyn Monroe graced the first edition with a voluptuous hourglass figure of 37-23-36. However, a magazine spokesman comments, "As time has gone on and women have become more athletic, more in the business world and more inclined to put themselves through fitness regimes, their bodies have changed, and we reflect that as well. But I would think that no one with eyes to see would consider playmates to be androgynous."

6-12. If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising for it can work both ways by either enhancing or diminishing recall. Why?

As a rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall. This is one of the basic goals of marketers who are trying to create and maintain awareness of their products. The more experience a consumer has with a product, the better use he or she is able to make of product information. However, there is a possible fly in the ointment: As noted earlier in the chapter, some evidence indicates that extreme familiarity can result in inferior learning and recall. When consumers are highly familiar with a brand or an advertisement, they may attend to fewer attributes because they do not believe that any additional effort will yield a gain in knowledge.

6-5. What is the difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?

Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus. Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

8-7. According to balance theory, how can we tell if a triad is balanced or unbalanced? How can consumers restore balance to an unbalanced triad?

Components of a triad can be either positive or negative. More importantly, people alter these components in order to make relations among them consistent. The theory specifies that people desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious, or balanced. If they are not, a state of tension will result until somehow the person changes his perceptions and restores balance.

8-4. How do levels of commitment to an attitude influence the likelihood it will become part of the way we think about a product in the long-term?

Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude; the degree of commitment is related to their level of involvement with the attitude object. Consumers are more likely to consider brands that engender strong positive attitudes.

8-1. How can an attitude play an ego-defensive function?

Either attitudes we form to protect ourselves from external threats or internal feelings perform an ego-defensive function. An early marketing study indicated that housewives in the 1950s resisted the use of instant coffee because it threatened their conception of themselves as capable homemakers.

6-8. Give an example of an episodic memory

Episodic memories relate to events that are personally relevant. As a result, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. Couples often have "their song" that reminds them of their first date or wedding or some remember the first time they went on a date or what happened at their high school prom.

5-3. Identify and describe the three stages of perception

Exposure occurs when a stimulus comes within the range of someone's sensory receptors. Attention refers to the extent to which processing activity is devoted to a particular stimulus. Interpretation refers to the meaning that we assign to sensory stimuli.

5-7. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Explain this statement

Gestalt roughly means whole, pattern, or configuration, and this perspective is best summarized by the saying "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

5-1. Define hedonic consumption and provide an example.

Hedonic consumption is the multi-sensory, fantasy, and emotional aspects of consumers' interactions with products. The Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corporation was the first company to trademark a color when it used bright pink for its insulation material and adopted the Pink Panther cartoon character as its spokes-character. Harley-Davidson actually tried to trademark the distinctive sound made by a "hog" revving up.

8-18.Do humorous ads work and if so under what conditions?

Humor is more likely to be effective when the brand is clearly identified and the funny material does not "swamp" the message. This danger is similar to one we have already discussed about beautiful models diverting attention from copy points. Subtle humor is usually better, as is humor that does not make fun of the potential consumer. Finally, humor should be appropriate to the product's image. An undertaker or a bank might want to avoid humor, whereas other products may adapt to it quite well.

6-6. What is the major difference between behavioral and cognitive theories of learning?

In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment. Supporters of this view also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process.

6-10. How is associative memory like a spider web?

Knowledge structures can be thought of as complex spider webs filled with pieces of data. This information is placed into nodes connected by associative links within these structures. Pieces of information that are seen as similar in some way are chunked together under some more abstract category. New, incoming information is interpreted to be consistent with the structure already in place.

6-3. How can marketers use repetition to increase the likelihood that consumers will learn about their brand?

Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that have been repeated so many times that they are etched in consumers' minds. Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One result of this lack of association may be extinction that occurs when effects of prior conditioning reduce and finally disappear. This can occur, for example, when a product is overexposed in the marketplace so that its original allure is lost.

8-9. "Do as I say, not as I do." How does this statement relate to attitude models?

Many studies have obtained a very low correlation between a person's reported attitude toward something and his or her actual behavior toward it. Some researchers have been so discouraged that they have questioned whether attitudes are of any use at all in understanding behavior

8-20. Why do marketers use metaphors to craft persuasive messages? Give two examples of this technique.

Metaphors allow the marketer to activate meaningful images and apply them to everyday events. In the stock market, "white knights" battle "hostile raiders" using "poison pills;" Tony the Tiger equates cereal with strength, and the Merrill Lynch bull sends the message that the brokerage is "a breed apart."

5-2. How does the sense of touch influence consumers' reactions to products?

Moods are stimulated or relaxed based on sensations reaching the skin, whether from a luxurious massage or the bite of a winter wind. Touch has even been shown to be a factor in sales interactions (holding an item makes a consumer feel attached to it; touch can increase tips/coupon redemption). We are more sure about what we perceive when we can touch it

8-2. Describe the ABC model of attitudes

Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components: affect, behavior, and cognition. Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object. Behavior involves the person's intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object (but, as we will discuss at a later point, an intention does not always result in an actual behavior). Cognition refers to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object. We can remember these three components of an attitude as the ABC model of attitudes

Should marketers ever try to arouse fear in order to persuade consumers?

Negative fear appeals are usually most effective when only a moderate threat is used, and when the ad presents a solution to the problem. Consumers will tune out an ad with strong fear appeals because they can do nothing to solve the problem. Consumers will ignore mild fear appeals because they do not pose a threat. In general, moderate fear appeals work better, when source credibility is high.

6-1. What is the difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?

Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, first demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only.

6-2. Give an example of a halo effect in marketing.

People react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; this generalization is called a halo effect. A drugstore's bottle of private brand mouthwash deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a similar response among consumers, who assume that this "me-too" product shares other characteristics of the original.

5-5. "Consumers practice a form of 'psychic economy.' " What does this mean?

Psychic economy is picking and choosing among stimuli to avoid being overwhelmed. How do they choose? Both personal and stimulus factors help to decide.

6-14. List three problems with measures of memory for advertising.

Response biases, memory lapses, and memory for facts versus feelings.

8-6. What is the foot-in-the-door technique? How does self-perception theory relate to this effect?

Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy called the foot-in-the-door technique that is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request. This relates to self-perception theory because the consumer examines his/her behavior to determine what his/her attitudes are. If the consumer has said yes to a small request, s/he may assume that his/her attitude is favorable and comply with a bigger request.

6-9. List the three types of memory, and tell how they work together.

Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses. This storage is temporary; it lasts a couple of seconds at most. Short-term memory (STM) also stores information for a limited period, and it has limited capacity. Similar to a computer, this system can be regarded as working memory; it holds the information we are currently processing. Long-term memory (LTM) is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period. Elaborative rehearsal is required in order for information to enter into long-term memory from short-term memory. This process involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.

8-11. What are three obstacles to predicting behavior even if we know a person's attitudes?

Some outcomes are beyond the consumer's control; behavior is not always intentional (impulsive actions; situation changes, novelty seeking); the measures of attitudes may not be specific enough to behavioral intentions; the time frame when the attitude was measured may have been too far removed from the behavior; personal experience may be more powerful than attitudes formed from advertising; and cultural roadblocks (e.g. involuntary acts, the impact of subjective norms, non-linear perspectives on time, fatalistic cultures) may interfere.

8-13. What is source credibility, and what are two factors that influence whether we will perceive a source to be credible

Source credibility refers to a source's perceived expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness. Factors affecting source credibility are: 1) whether the source's qualifications are viewed as relevant, and 2) whether or not there is a bias associated with the source.

5-4. What is the difference between an absolute threshold and a differential threshold?

The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on a given sensory channel. The differential threshold refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect changes or differences between two stimuli.

6-11. How does the likelihood a person will be willing to use an ATM machine relate to a schema?

The desire to follow a script or schema helps to explain why such service innovations as automatic bank machines, self-service gas stations, or "scan-your-own" grocery checkouts have met with resistance by some consumers, who have trouble adapting to a new sequence of events

8-14. What is a halo effect, and why does it happen?

The halo effect occurs when persons who rank high on one dimension are assumed to excel on others as well. It happens because of the transfer of meaning from one object to another. Classical conditioning can help explain how the halo effect works

7-2. Compare and contrast the real versus the ideal self. . List three products for which each type of self is likely to be used as a reference point when a purchase is considered

The ideal self is a person's conception of how he or she would like to be, whereas the actual self refers to our more realistic appraisal of the qualities we have and don't have. Product choices will vary, but products associated with the ideal self are more likely to be expressive.

8-5. We sometimes enhance our attitude toward a product after we buy it. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance explain this change?

The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, he or she will take some action to resolve this "dissonance," perhaps by changing an attitude or modifying a behavior. The theory has important ramifications for attitudes, because people are often confronted with situations in which there is some conflict between their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, if a person encounters negative information about a product after purchasing it, they may discount that information and focus on positive information that would reaffirm their reasons for having purchased.

8-12. Describe the theory of reasoned action. Why might it not be equally valuable when it is applied to non-Western cultures?

The theory of reasoned action has primarily been applied in Western settings. Certain assumptions inherent in the model may not necessarily apply to consumers from other cultures. Several cultural roadblocks diminish the universality of the theory of reasoned action: • Some acts are not voluntary, and the model predicts the performance of a voluntary act. • The relative impact of subjective norms may vary across cultures. • The model presupposes consumers are thinking ahead, while not all cultures subscribe to the linear perspective on time. • Some (more fatalistic) cultures do not believe the consumer controls his/her actions.

8-3. List the three hierarchies of attitudes, and describe the major differences among them

The three hierarchies are: 1) the Standard Learning Hierarchy (beliefs/affect/behavior), 2) the Low-Involvement Hierarchy (beliefs/behavior/affect), and 3) the Experiential Hierarchy (affect/behavior/beliefs). The differences are in the order the consumer processes information, evaluate feelings and experiences the product. The standard learning hierarchy is most likely to be used in high involvement purchase situations, while the experiential hierarchy is more likely to be associated with impulse purchases.

8-16. How does the two-factor theory explain the effects of message repetition on attitude change?

The two-factor theory explains the fine line between familiarity, which can result in favorable attitudes through the mere exposure effect, and boredom, which can result in habituation where the consumer stops paying attention to the ad, by proposing that two separate psychological processes are operating when a person is repeatedly exposed to an ad. The positive side of repetition is that it increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about the product. The negative side is that over time boredom increases with each exposure. At some point, the amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed the amount of uncertainty reduced, resulting in wear-out.

8-10. What is a subjective norm, and how does it influence our attitudes?

The value of SN is arrived at by including two factors: (1) the intensity of a normative belief (NB) that others believe an action should be taken or not taken, and (2) the motivation to comply (MC) with that belief (i.e., the degree to which the consumer takes others' anticipated reactions into account when evaluating a course of action or a purchase). It influences attitudes because consumers are likely to be more comfortable with attitudes that are consistent with subjective norms.

8-15. When should a marketer present a message visually versus verbally?

Visuals should be used when the marketer wants to generate an emotional response. Because it requires more effort to process, a verbal message is most appropriate for high-involvement situations, such as in print contexts in which the reader is motivated to really pay attention to the advertising. Because verbal material decays more rapidly in memory, messages require frequent exposure to obtain the desired effect. Visual images, in contrast, allow the receiver to chunk information at the time of encoding. Chunking results in a stronger memory trace that aids retrieval over time. Visual elements may affect brand attitudes in one of two ways. First, the consumer may form inferences about the brand and change his beliefs because of an illustration's imagery. For example, people in a study who saw an ad for a facial tissue accompanied by a photo of a sunset were more likely to believe that the brand came in attractive colors. Second, brand attitudes may be affected more directly; for example, a strong positive or negative reaction the visual elements cause will influence the consumer's attitude toward the ad (Aad) that will then affect brand attitudes (Ab).

8-17. When is it best to present a two-sided message versus a one-sided message?

When the audience is educated, the use of refutational arguments, in which a negative issue is raised and then dismissed, can be quite effective. This approach can increase source credibility by reducing reporting bias. In addition, people who are skeptical about the product may be more receptive to a balanced argument instead of a "whitewash."

6-13. Name the two basic measures of memory and describe how they differ from one another

are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information first—obviously this task requires greater effort on the part of respondents.

6-7. Name the three stages of information processing.

encoding, storage, and retrieval

5-8. List the three semiotic components of a marketing message, giving an example of each

object is the product that is the focus of the message (e.g., Marlboro cigarettes). The sign is the sensory image that represents the intended meanings of the object (e.g., the Marlboro cowboy). The interpretant is the meaning derived (e.g., rugged, individualistic, American).