C215
Act (PDSA) (Continuous Improvement)
- Act on the basis of the results of first three phases - Communicate results to other members of company and implement new procedure if has been successful - Then plan again
Cause-and-effect diagram (Use of Quality Tools)
- Chart that identifies potential causes of particular quality problems - Used by quality control teams; brainstorming - Problem solving tool
Sources of variation
- Common or random - Assignable
c-charts (Attribute)
- Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per unit - Used when defects can be counted per unit of measure - Discrete defects when there can be more than one defect per unit - Actual number of defect - Number of dents per item - Number of complaints per unit of time - Number of tears per unit of area
TQM Philosophy
- Customer focus - Continuous improvement - Employee empowerment - Use of quality tools - Product design - Process management - Managing supplier quality
QFD encompasses (Product Design)
- Customer requirements - Competitive evaluation - Product characteristics - Relationship matrix - Trade-off matrix - Setting targets
ISO 9000 Standards
- Developed by International Organization for Standardization - Set of internally recognized quality standards - Companies periodically audited - 9000:2008, QMS - Fundamentals and standards - 90001:2008: QMS - Requirements - 90004:2008: QMS - Guidelines for performance - More 40,000 companies certified
Managing supplier quality (Product Design)
- Don't just go with lowest price - Supplier following same quality measures does not require inspection
Customer Focus (TQM Philosophy)
- Goal is to identify and meet customer needs - Quality is customer driven - Stay tuned to changing needs e.g. fashion styles
Do (PDSA) (Continuous Improvement)
- Implement the plan - Managers document all changes made - Collect data for evaluation
Why TQM Efforts Fail
- Lack of genuine quality culture - Lack of top management support and commitment - Over- and under reliance on statistical process control (SPC) methods
Quality Awards Standards
- Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) - Deming Prize - ISO 9000 standards - ISO sustainability reporting 2600, 1400
Awards and standards recognize excellence
- Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA), companies evaluated in 7 areas - ISO 9000 certificate: ensure quality conformance
Plan (PDSA) (Continuous Improvement)
- Managers evaluate current process make plans based on problem they find - Document current procedures, collect data ID problems - Study and used to develop plan for improvement and measures to evaluation performance
Customer-defined quality
- Meaning of quality as defined by the customer - Result of successful TQM
Continuous Improvement (TQM Philosophy)
- Philosophy of never-ending improvement e.g. Kaizen - Plan-do-study-act cycle - Benchmarking
Four categories of quality costs
- Prevention - Appraisal - Internal - External
P-chart vs c-chart (Attributes)
- Primary difference: - p-chart used when both total sample size and number of defects can be computer - c-chart used when we can compute only number of defects but cannot compute proportion that is defective
Reliability (Product Design)
- Probability that a product, service, or part will perform as intended - 90% means has 90% chance functioning intended, but also 10% chance fail - Rs = (R1)(R2)... - Redundancy R1 + R2 = Rs
Product Design (TQM Philosophy)
- Product need to be designed to meet customer expectations - Quality function deployment (QFD) - Reliability - Redundancy - Process Management & Managing Supplier Quality
Process Management (Product Design)
- Quality products come from quality sources - Quality must be built into the process - Quality at the source - TQM extends to quality of product from suppliers
Common cause of variation
- Random causes that cannot be identified - Unavoidable and due to slight differences in processing
Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA)
- Reward and stimulate quality initiatives - Given to no more than two companies in each of 3 categories: manufacturing, service, small business - Motorola, Xerox, FedEx, 3M, IBM, Ritz-Carlton
Study (PDSA) (Continuous Improvement)
- Study data collected in previous phase - Data evaluated to see whether plan achieving goals established in plan phase
X-bar & R-Charts
- System can show acceptable central tendencies (x-bar) but unacceptable variability (R-chart) - System can show acceptable variability (R-chart) but unacceptable central tendencies (x-bar)
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) (Product Design)
- Tool used to translate preferences of the customer into specific technical requirements - Ensure product design meets customer expectations (and enhance communication internally) - Relationship matrix & house of quality
Using X-bar & R-Charts together
- Used to monitor different variable - Can be detected by 1 but not the other
Philip B. Crosby
-Coined phrase "quality is free." -Introduced concept of zero defects
Walter A. Shewhart
-Contributed to understanding of process variability. -Developed concept of statistical control charts.
Joseph M. Juran
-Defined quality as "fitness for use." -Developed concept of cost of quality.
Kaoru Ishikawa
-Developed cause-and-effect diagrams. -Identified concept of "internal customer."
Genichi Taguchi
-Focused on product design quality. -Developed Taguchi loss function.
Armand V. Feigenbaum
-Introduced concept of total quality control.
W. Edwards Deming
-Stressed management's responsibility for quality. -Developed "14 Points" to guide companies in quality improvement
Use of Quality Tools (TQM Philosophy)
1. Cause and effect diagram (fishbone) 2. Flowchart 3. Checklist 4. Control chart 5. Scatter Diagram 6. Pareto Chart 7. Histogram
Seven features of TQM combine to create TQM Philosophy
1. Customer focus 2. Continuous improvement 3. Employee empowerment 4. Use of quality tools 5. Product design 6. Process management 7. Managing supplier quality QFD: Tool used to translate customer needs into specific engineering requirements
Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) Categories
1. Leadership 2. Strategic Planning 3. Customer and Market Focus 4. Information and Analysis 5. Human Resources Focus 6. Process Management 7. Business Results
Robust Design
A design that results in a product that can perform over a wide range of conditions
Two Types of High Quality (Quality Control Costs)
Achieve High Quality - Prevention Costs - Appraisal Costs
Quality at the source (Product Design)
Believe that it is best to uncover source of quality problems and eliminate it
New Concept of Quality
Build quality into the process. Identify and correct causes of quality problems.
Assignable cause of variation
Causes that can be identified and corrected Example: poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair
Histograms (Use of Quality Tools)
Chart that shows the frequency distribution of observed values of a variable
Control Charts (Use of Quality Tools)
Charts used to evaluate whether a process is operating within set expectations
Manufacturing Quality Traits
Conformance to specifications Performance Reliability Features Durability Serviceability
R-charts (attribute)
Control chart that monitors changes in the dispersion or variability of a processMonitor the dispersion or variability of the process
p-charts (Attribute)
Control chart that monitors the proportion of defects in a sample -Used when observations are place in either of two groups -Measure proportion of items in sample that are defective Proportion of broken cookies in batch Proportion of cards produced with misaligned fender - Discrete yes/no or pass fail - Defective or not defective - Good or bad - Broken or not broken
x-bar chart (variable)
Control chart used to monitor changes in the mean value of a process Monitor the changes in the mean of a process (central tendencies)
Taguchi loss function
Cost of quality increases as a quadratic function as conformance values move away from the target - [LOSS ..... No Loss .... LOSS]
External Failure Costs (Quality Failure Costs)
Costs of failure at customer site, including returns, repairs and recalls - Costs associated with quality problems that occur at the customer site - Costs of defect increases as goes from Product Design > Product Production > Customer site
Prevention Costs (Quality Control Cost)
Costs of preparing and implementing a quality plan - Costs incurred in the process of preventing poor quality from occurring
Internal Failure Costs (Quality Failure Costs)
Costs of scrap, rework, and material losses - Costs associated with discovering poor product quality before the product reaches the customer
Appraisal Costs (Quality Control Cost)
Costs of testing, evaluating, and inspecting quality - Costs incurred in the process of uncovering defects
Definitions of Quality
Dependent on people defining it
Plan-do-study-act cycle (Continuous Improvement)
Diagram describes activities that need to be performed to incorporate continuous improvement into the operation
Employee empowerment (TQM Philosophy)
Employees are expected to seek out, identify, and correct quality problems External vs internal customers Team approach - Teams formed around processes - Quality circles; 8-10 people - Meet weekly to analyze and solve problems
Fitness for use
Evaluates performance for intended use - Jeep better overlanding
Value for price paid
Evaluation of usefulness vs price paid Quality defined in terms of product or service usefulness for the price paid. - Only definition combines economics with consumer criteria
TQM is different from old concepts of quality
Focus is on serving customers, identifying the causes of quality problems, and building quality into the production process
ISO 14000
Focus on company's environmental responsibility
Manufacturing Quality
Focuses on tangible product features that can be - Seen - Touched - Directly managed
Calculate Range (R) Charts
From chart CL = R-bar UCL = D4*R-bar LCL = D3*R-bar
Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
General category of statistical tools used to evaluate organizational quality 1. Descriptive Statistics 2. Statistical Process Control (SPC) including 6-sigma 3. Acceptance Sampling
Control Charts
Graph that shows whether a sample of data falls within the common or normal range of variation - For variables: to monitor characteristics that can be measured, weight - For attributes: to monitor characteristics have discrete values and can be counted: defects
Scatter Diagrams (Use of Quality Tools)
Graphs that show how two variables are related to each other
ISO 26000
Help organizations evaluate and address social responsibility
Two Types of Poor Quality Consequences (Quality Failure Costs)
High Costs Associated with Poor Quality - External Failure costs - Internal failure costs
Conformance to Specification
How Well a product/service meet targets and tolerances defined by its designers
Old Concept of Quality
Inspect for quality after production
Service Quality Includes
Intangible factors Consistency Responsiveness to customer needs Courtesy/friendliness Timeliness/promptness Atmosphere
Deming Prize
Japanese award given to companies to recognize efforts in quality improvement
Kaizen (Continuous Improvement)
Japanese term that describes the notion of a company continually striving to be better through learning and problem solving
Psychological criteria
Judgmental evaluation of what constitutes product/service quality A way of defining quality that focuses on judgmental evaluations of what constitutes product or service excellence
Checklist (Use of Quality Tools)
List of common defects and number of observed occurrences of these defects
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Range Standard deviation Distribution of data shape
Most important factor in success of TQM
Organization's commitment
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Philosophy that seeks to improve quality by eliminating causes of product defects and by making quality the responsibility of everyone in the organization
Product specifications
Preset ranges of acceptable quality characteristics - Tolerances - Based on how product is to be used or what the customer expects
Benchmarking (Continuous Improvement)
Process of studying practices of companies considered "best-in-class" and comparing your company's performance against theirs
Service Quality
Produce intangible products that must be experienced and cannot be - Seen - Touched
Attribute
Product characteristic that has discrete value and can be counted - Number of flaws - Percent defective - p-charts - c-charts
Variable
Product or characteristic that can be measured and has a continuum of values - X-bar charts - R-charts - Height - Weight - Volume
Support Services
Quality of support provided after the product/service purchased
Flowcharts (Use of Quality Tools)
Schematic of the sequence of steps involved in an operation or process
Out of control
Situation in which a plot of data falls outside present control limits - Within limits: Variation due to normal causes - Outside limits: variation due to assignable causes
Statistical Process Control - SPC (Statistical Quality Control)
Statistical tool that involves inspecting a random sample of the output from a process and deciding whether the process is producing products with characteristic s that fall within a predetermined range - Includes Six Sigma
Descriptive statistics (Statistical Quality Control)
Statistics used to describe quality characteristics and relationships - Includes statistics such as mean, standard deviation, range, and measure of distribution of data
TQM within Operations Management (OM)
TQM requires broad and sweeping organizational changes TQM impacts - Marketing: providing key inputs of customer information - Finance: evaluating and monitoring financial impact - Accounting: providing exact costing - Engineering: translating customer requirements into specific engineering terms - Purchasing: acquiring materials to support product development - Human resources: hiring employees with necessary skills - Information systems; fulfilling increased need for accessible information
Quality Circle (Employee Empowerment)
Team of volunteer production employees and their supervisors who meet regularly to solve quality problems
Pareto Analysis (Use of Quality Tools)
Technique used to identify quality problems based on their degree of importance
Process capability
The ability of a production process to meet or exceed preset specifications
Acceptance sampling (Statistical Quality Control)
The process of randomly inspecting a sample of goods and deciding whether to accept the entire lot based on the results
Quality has evolved over the last few decades
Today, organizations build quality into process rather than checking for defects after production
c-cart calculation
UCL = c-bar + z*sqrt(c-bar) LCL = c-bar - z*sqrt(c-bar)
p-chart calculation
UCL = p-bar + z*sigma-p LCL = p-bar - z*sigma-p Sigma-p = sqrt[(p-bar(1-p-bar))/n)]
Calculate UCL and LCL
UCL = x-bar + z*sigma-x LCL = x-bar - z*sigma-x
Calculate X-bar
X - bar = Sum x-bar / number samples Sigma-x = sigma / sqrt(# samples)