Cambridge grammar of english 2
Intensifier An adverb which strengthens, intensifies or focuses on a particular aspect of the meaning of an item. Intensifiers are often subdivided into amplifiers (very, really, completely, extremely) and downtoners (partially, hardly, barely, slightly): I was extremely annoyed.
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Interjection A term for exclamatory words or expressive vocalisations used to express emotional reactions such as surprise, shock, delight (crikey, gosh, hooray, oh, ouch, wow): Gosh! That's quick. Ouch, that hurts!
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Interrogative A clause type that is typically associated with questions. The normal word order is auxiliary/modal verb + subject + verb + x, where x is any other element present (e.g. object/predicative complement): Do you need any help at all? Where did you have your hair done?
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Intransitive Refers to the use of verbs without any other items being necessary to complete their meaning, for example, verbs such as appear, begin, die, go, laugh, rain, happen): The old man died. We all laughed.
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Inversion A reversal of the usual sequence of constituents. For example, in an interrogative clause, the subject and auxiliary/modal verb are inverted (Are we going to have a party?).
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Irregular verb Refers to the form of verb which has a variety of types of ending and internal change applied to the base form. Irregular verbs are similar to regular verbs in making their -s form and -ing participle (speaks, speaking; meets, meeting; takes, taking; swims, swimming). But almost all irregular verbs are irregular in their past form and -ed participle (spoke, spoken; met, met; took, taken; swam, swum).
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Lexeme Refers to the underlying forms of words which can only belong to one word class. For example, the word water has a similar meaning when used as a noun (I drank the water.) and when used as a verb (I must water the plants.) but it is a different lexeme in each case. Forms such as water, waters, watering and watered are grammatically distinct forms of the same lexeme, the verb water.
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Lexical Concerned with vocabulary rather than grammar, and concerned with content meaning rather than grammatical meaning. Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and most verbs are lexical items. Modal and auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, etc. are treated as grammatical, not lexical, items.
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Linking adjunct A single word or phrase which explicitly indicates the semantic relationship between two clauses, sentences or paragraphs. The semantic relations that are signalled by linking adjuncts include: additive (also, above all); resultative (so, therefore); contrastive (rather, on the contrary); inference (then, in that case); time (eventually, then); concessive (anyway, though); summative (overall, in short); listing (firstly, lastly); and meta-textual (namely, so to speak).
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Locative, locative complement Refers to a prepositional phrase which locates the object in terms of place or time. A locative complement occurs after certain verbs of placement and direction such as bring, drive, lay, lead, put, show, stand, take: verb object locative complement Edith | led | her | through her own front door. verb object locative complement Did you | put | your stuff | in our bedroom?
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Main clause (another term for independent clause) This is a clause that can form a sentence on its own. It must have a tensed verb (a verb indicating tense): I went to speak to them.(one main clause as whole sentence) I like ice cream but I don't like yoghurt.(main clause + main clause) After you have returned home, please give me a ring.(subordinate clause + main clause)
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Marked Refers to an untypical use of something. Marked word order in English refers to word order which is untypical; for example, the word order o-s-v is marked: O S V That furniture we bought years ago, this lot is more recent. (marked word order: that furniture is the theme, rather than we) Marked word order is used to create various kinds of focus on particular elements for a variety of purposes. When a grammatical or semantic structure is distinguished by a contrast between widespread, normal regional/social varieties of British English and less widespread ones, it is referred to as regionally or socially marked (e.g. the use of ain't). Marked stress refers to the use of extra force in pronunciation or in intonation to make words or syllables sound louder or more emphatic.
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Modal expression Refers to expressions that carry modal meanings apart from the modal and semi-modal verbs. These include: • verbs (e.g. allow, demand, hope, let, make, seem, want, wish): She seems to be quite clever for her age. • grammaticalised modal phrases (e.g. be going to, be meant to, be obliged to, be supposed to, had better): I thought I had better warn you now. • modal adjectives, adverbs and nouns (e.g. certain(ly), definite(ly), possible, probability, supposedly): Would it be possible for me to have a copy of the document?
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Modality Refers to a speaker's or a writer's attitude towards, or point of view about, a state of the world. It is centrally concerned with the expression of certainty, volition, possibility and obligation. Core modal verbs (can, could, may, might, will, shall, would, should, must) and semi-modals (dare, need, ought to, used to) are the principal way in which modal meanings are expressed.
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Modification A term used to refer to the structural dependence of one grammatical unit on another in which the meaning of the head of a phrase is affected by words that are used to indicate qualities and attributes of the head. For example, in the noun phrase those big boxes in the garage, both big and in the garage modify boxes, performing premodification and postmodification, respectively.
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Mono-transitive Refers to verbs that require an object. In I took the last piece of bread, took is a mono-transitive verb, with its direct object the last piece of bread. The direct object is typically a noun phrase, but it may also be a clause, as in You always know what I'm thinking.
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Mood A grammatical category relating to the speaker's or writer's attitude to express a factual, non-factual or directive meaning through the verb. The three moods distinguished are indicative (She enjoys her new job.), imperative (Enjoy your meal!) and subjunctive (We insist that he enjoy the meal first before making his speech.).
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Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word. Some words consist of just one morpheme (help), some consist of several (unhelpful consists of three morphemes: the base form help, the prefix un- and the suffix -ful).
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Morphology Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, and includes the study of base forms, affixes, compounding, derivation, etc.
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-ing form A non-tensed verb form which is made by adding -ing to the base form, and is used with auxiliary be to form progressive aspect (I was doing some work for Sally.). It also occurs in non-finite clauses (Please listen carefully to all the options before making your choice.), and functions as a noun-like form sometimes called the gerund (Smoking is not allowed; I'm tired of shouting.).
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Honorific Words such as sir or madam. They are often respectful and deferential.
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Hypercorrect A term used to describe excessive care in the production of speech or writing in order to sound educated and native-like which can lead to over-generalisation of rules: The chips smell nice. (hypercorrect: The chips smell nicely.)
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Imperative A clause type which is typically associated with directives, commands, orders, instructions, etc. It consists of the base form of the verb, typically with no overt subject, + any other required elements: Get some kitchen paper, quick! Sign here, please.
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Indefinite article, indefinite pronoun Indefinite article refers to the determiner a/an that is used to express an indefinite meaning: Give me a pen, please. I went for an eye test. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a non-specific or non-definite meaning (someone, anybody, everything, many, one, more, all).
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Indicative A form of clause mood which expresses the factual or 'indicative' meaning of stating or questioning. It is the most frequent form and involves all the choices of person, tense, number, aspect, modality and voice (It's a nice day. Are we going out?). Indicative is contrasted with imperative and subjunctive.
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Indirect interrogative clause Refers to the use of wh-clause, a clause with if/whether or a nominal clause as object in a sentence. In order to avoid being too assertive or threatening, a direct interrogative is not used: Tell me what you want for dinner. Could I possibly ask why you're unable to attend? I asked whether she wanted to stay overnight.
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Indirect object Refers to the indirect recipient or beneficiary of an action which has a direct recipient. An indirect object (io) always co-occurs with a direct object (do): S V IO DO The teacher | gave | the pupils | some homework.
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Indirect speech (or reported speech) A reconstruction of the words of a speaker conveyed in a reported clause, accompanied by a reporting clause with verbs such as tell, say, reply, suggest, mention. For example, direct speech He said, 'I am unhappy.' contrasts with indirect speech He told me/said that he was unhappy.
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Infinitive The non-tensed form of a verb that usually combines with to (It's time for me to order now.). It can also occur without to (also known as the 'bare infinitive') (I may see you tomorrow; let me help).
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Inflection A process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings. For example: the -s on dogs indicates plural; the past form drank contrasts with the present drink; the -est on cleverest indicates the superlative form.
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Informal A term associated with variation in speech or writing style in which a more relaxed and colloquial choice of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary is made, projecting a closer relationship among participants: I got into Oxford on law. (informal) I was accepted by Oxford University to study law. (formal)
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Multi-word verb A lexical verb which may be combined with one or two particles to function as a verb with a unitary meaning. There are three kinds of multi-word verb. Phrasal verbs have adverb particles (sit down, go away, get off, give in). Prepositional verbs take a preposition (go against, call on, look after), and phrasal-prepositional verbs take both an adverb and a preposition (look forward to, look down on, catch up with, put up with).
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Negation Refers to a grammatical construction with negative polarity. Negation can be formed through affixes (unhealthy, irresponsible, non-existent, careless), and through negative words like not, no, neither, never, no one, nobody, none: George has not been here recently. A: Aren't you ready yet? B: No. Not yet. Negation is contrasted with affirmative meanings which have positive polarity.
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Nominal clause A clause type that fulfils a noun-like function (e.g. an object): nominal clause complement Writing novels | is | not easy. subject verb nominal clause I | know | what you mean.
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Nominalisation Involves forming a noun from other parts of speech, most commonly from verbs or adjectives (flying → flight, bright → brightness, long → length, industrial → industrialisation). The nominalised form offers the possibility of a more formal expression of the equivalent verb or adjective meaning: I was dazzled by the extremely bright lights. I was dazzled by the extreme brightness of the lights.
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Non-count (or uncountable) A grammatical distinction of nouns which denote things that are treated as indivisible wholes, for instance, materials and liquids, states of mind, conditions, topics, processes and substances (water, cheese, music, information, sand, love). With non-count nouns there is no contrast in number between singular and plural: They gave us some information. (They gave us some informations.)
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Non-defining relative clause (or non-restrictive relative clause) This is a clause that describes or gives additional information to the head noun in a noun phrase. A non-defining clause usually begins with a relative pronoun who, whom, which, whose, and is marked off by a comma in writing: have you ever heard of Guy Preston who had a hit song with 'loving ways'?
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Non-finite Non-finite clauses contain a verb which does not indicate tense, for example, an infinitive (We queued up early so as to get a good seat.), an -ed participle (You should read the parts highlighted in yellow.) or an -ing form (Coming round the corner, we spotted the old house.).
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Non-gradable Refers to adjectives or adverbs that cannot be graded on a scale of 'more' or 'less' in terms of the property they describe (dead/alive, male/female, truly, main, married). Non-gradable adjectives and adverbs cannot take the comparative or superlative inflection, nor can they be preceded or premodified by words like more, most, quite, rather, so, very (more male, rather dead, very truly, very married are not possible). Non-gradable is contrasted with gradable.
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Non-standard A term that refers to the use of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation that does not conform to the norms used by educated native speakers of the standard variety. An example is the use of ain't as a negative contraction in speech: I know something. That ain't the answer. (standard form: isn't)
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Non-tensed Any verb form which does not indicate present or past tense, e.g. the -ing form or the infinitive. Non-tensed is contrasted with tensed.
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Noun (proper, common, concrete, abstract), noun phrase Refers to words which denote classes and categories of things in the world, including people, animals, inanimate things, places, events, qualities and states (accident, cat, club, competition). A noun phrase has a noun or pronoun as its head. Noun phrases can act as the subject (s), object (o) or predicative complement (c) of a clause: S O My father used to play the piano. C You're a good friend. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns give names to people and things (Tony Blair, Greece, Oxfam). Nouns which are not proper nouns are common nouns (table, boy, heat). Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can be observed and measured (cat, garage, soldier). Abstract nouns refer to abstractions that cannot be observed and measured (competition, conscience).
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Number A grammatical distinction which contrasts singular and plural in nouns (story-stories), pronouns (I-we), determiners (this-these) and verbs (he works hard-they work hard).
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Object Refers to a clause element that follows the verb, and includes both direct (bold in the examples) and indirect (in green) objects. Objects indicate the direct and indirect recipients of actions. Objects are made up of noun phrases (I like that restaurant. Joe gave me a present.).
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Orthography A term that deals with the writing system in a language: the distinctive written symbols and their possible combinations.
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Particle Refers to a small group of words mostly made up of adverbs and prepositions. They are closely linked to verbs to form multi-word verbs (sit down, go away, go astray, look forward to, look down on). Other particles include not, and to used with an infinitive.
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Partitive A quantifying expression used before a non-count noun to specify the units, parts and collections of things (a pair of trousers, a piece of paper, a bunch of roses, four slices of ham).
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Perfect A type of aspect that gives information about a speaker's perspective on the relationship of events to the moment of speaking or to some other point in time. It is realised by auxiliary have + -ed participle of a lexical verb. The present perfect relates events or states taking place in the past to a present time orientation: I've made a lot of friends since I moved here. The past perfect relates situations or events anterior to a time of orientation in the past: She had been unhappy for years and so decided to join the slimming class.
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Performative A term that refers to a type of utterance that performs a speech act simply by saying it (I name this ship 'Victory'; I apologise).
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Reciprocal, reciprocal verb, reciprocal pronoun A term that expresses a two-way relationship. A reciprocal use of a verb suggests that the coordinated subjects are doing the same thing to each other (meet, divorce, kiss, separate, fight): Frank and Diane met in 1979. A reciprocal pronoun refers to a mutual relationship between people or things: They hate each other/one another.
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Person A grammatical category which indicates the choice of personal reference and number. Three kinds of contrast exist: first person (which includes the speaker/writer, e.g. I, my, we, our), second person (which refers to the addressee, e.g. you, yours), and third person (which refers to a third party, e.g. he, she, it, they, him, her, its). These distinctions apply to personal, possessive and reflexive determiners and pronouns.
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Phatic Communication where participants are less concerned to convey information than to build a relationship or to make social contact; for example, talking about the weather is phatic in several cultures.
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Phonetics, phonology Phonetics is concerned with the study of physical properties of speech sounds in a language, and the actual articulation or production of speech sounds. Phonology is the study of the sound system in a language.
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Phrase A word or group of words which form grammatical units such as noun phrase, verb phrase or adjective phrase. Phrases are the constituents of clauses.
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Pitch Refers to the way in which speakers vary their sound level. Pitch movement is denoted by a rising or falling tone as a result of the vibration of the vocal cord.
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Plural A grammatical category in number that refers to more than one, in the case of nouns (tables, computers), verbs (they come), pronouns (we, they), etc.
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Polarity (adjective = polar) A term used to mark affirmative/negative contrasts in a clause: The children are lovely. (affirmative) They don't do it during the summer. (negative) Polar (or yes-no) questions demand the answer yes or no: Are you a teacher? (yes or no?)
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Position (front, mid, end) Refers to the 'location' of a grammatical element in a clause. The three possible positions are front, mid and end positions. For example, adjuncts can occupy a variety of positions in a clause: In the morning we had to pretend nothing happened. (front position) We sometimes go to Rochester. (mid position) That young guy seems to deliver the post quite often these days. (end position) Objects and predicative complements have slightly less flexibility and occasionally occur in less typical positions for reasons of emphasis. Compared with written English, positioning in spoken conversation is generally more flexible (Are my keys in the door still?/Are my keys still in the door?).
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Possessive A word or part of a word that describes possession: possessive determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, their); possessive pronoun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs); genitive (cow's milk, men's jacket); the of construction (the rules of the school, a student of this class).
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Post-head Refers to the dependent elements that come after the head in a phrase. They can be complements and postmodifiers. Complements complete the meaning of the head and they precede postmodifiers: head post-head complement a | rise | in interest rates head post-head complement She was too | tired | to work. head post head complement postmodifier Students | of astronomy | at Cambridge all get very high grades.
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Postmodification, postmodifier A term used to refer to the modification which occurs after the head word in a phrase: noun postmodifier The children | who are playing in the playground | live down the street. adverb postmodifier Luckily | enough, | I had a spare key.
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Pragmatics (adjective = pragmatic) The study of communication in relation to the intended meanings of particular utterances within particular situations. For instance, It is cold here. is typically heard as a statement of fact; however, depending on the intention of the speaker and the context of the utterance, it can be a complaint, a challenge or a request to shut a window.
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Pre-head Refers to the dependent elements that come before the head in a phrase. In the noun phrase, they can be determiners and premodifiers. Determiners indicate the type of reference for the whole noun phrase and they come before premodifiers: pre-head head det premodifier some | baked | potatoes pre-head head det premodifier all | university | students
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Predicate, predicative The part of a clause which elaborates what the subject is, does or experiences. It consists of the verb and its object or complement: subject predicate Susan | won the race. Predicative refers to a clause element that occurs in the predicate: predicative adj The old lady is | very nice. predicative subject complement These books are | encyclopaedias.
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Prefix An affix that is attached to the beginning of misunderstanding, post-war, recheck, unhappy, anti-sociala base form to create a new word ().
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Premodification, premodifier A term used to refer to the modification which occurs before the head word in a phrase. Modifiers which occur before the head are premodifiers (a different bus rather good very quickly right on the edge).
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Preposition, prepositional phrase, preposition stranding Class of word used to express relationships between two events, things or people in terms of time (at 2 o'clock), space (to the school) and other abstract relations (the capital city of Brazil). Prepositions can occur as single words (about, at, by, into) or in pairs (out of, next to, as for). A phrase with a preposition as the head followed by a complement is called a prepositional phrase (I'll come with you.). Preposition stranding occurs when the preposition is separated from its complement and placed at the end of the clause: complement preposition What was she referring to?
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Present perfect Used to relate events or states taking place in the past to a present time orientation. It has simple and progressive forms: We've had that TV set for fifteen years.(fifteen years ago till now) So, what's been happening since the last time we met? (from that moment till now) The simple form is used to emphasise completed and punctual events: Advertising agency FCB has carried out extensive research on how people on short-term contracts feel about their jobs. The present perfect progressive can place greater emphasis on the duration of an event up to the present moment to indicate an uninterrupted action: I've been waiting for you for over an hour.
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Proform Proforms function to substitute for the object, complement, adjunct, or the whole clause in a sentence. For instance, definite pronouns (he, this, those) or indefinite pronouns (one, all, none), auxiliary verbs (do, have), or adverbs (so, similarly) can be used as proforms: A: Oh those cakes look lovely. B: They do, don't they? (they is a proform for those cakes; do is a proform for look lovely)
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Progressive (or continuous) A grammatical aspect which sees time in terms of its unfolding at the moment of speaking, and observes actions and events as incomplete, in progress or developing. It is realised by auxiliary verb be and the -ing form of a lexical verb: We are leaving now. They are travelling through Italy at the moment. In this grammar book the term progressive is used in preference to continuous.
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Pronoun An item used to substitute for the references to entities which lexical noun phrases indicate: Your boxes of photos have been delivered. They're in the kitchen.(they = your boxes of photos) The main sub-classifications include personal (he, you), possessive (his, yours), reflexive (himself, yourselves), reciprocal (each other, one another), relative (who, which, that), interrogative (who, what, which), demonstrative (this, these, that, those), and indefinite (some, none).
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Proposition The topic and comment in a clause together constitute a proposition: topic comment We | baked some potatoes in the fire.
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Prosody (adjective = prosodic) Refers to variations in spoken features such as stress, rhythm, intonation, voice quality, pitch, loudness, tempo, pauses.
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Prototypical Shows that a category or representation is the most typical, usual, or characteristic. For example, prototypical questions have interrogative form and function to elicit information.
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Pseudo-cleft A grammatical structure which allows end focus to be placed on the clause element. Pseudo-cleft sentences are most often introduced by a what-clause which provides old or given information, while the copular complement contains the new, important information: What we need is a hammer. What you want is a telephone bank account.
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Pseudo-intransitive (or middle construction) Refers to the use of verbs intransitively which are normally used transitively in clauses (clean, close, cook, drive, iron, photograph, read). In this construction, the agent is not mentioned and the recipient/beneficiary of the action becomes the grammatical subject. This gives endweight to the verb (and any accompanying complement/adjunct): Fish cooks quickly. Helen photographs really well, doesn't she?
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Pseudo-passive Structures based on get and have which are more common in spoken language. Pseudo-passives are similar to true passives in that the grammatical subject is typically the recipient, rather than the agent/doer, of the action: They got deported. She had her car damaged.
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Punctuation This involves conventions such as the comma (,), colon (:), semi-colon (;), full-stop (.), hyphen (-), question mark (?), exclamation mark (!), quotation marks (' '), dashes (), parentheses ( ). Punctuation functions to separate grammatical units and paragraphs in written language, and to specify particular properties of units through quotation marks, italics, initial capitals, bold face, etc.
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Quantifier Part of speech Another term for word class, referring to the linguistic units that realise sentence elements.
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Quantifier A word or phrase used before a noun to express a positive or negative contrast in quantity. There are closed and open classes of quantifiers. Closed class: all, some, many, much, few, little, several, enough, etc. Open class: a lot of, plenty of, large amounts of, a bottle of, two loaves of, etc.
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Question (yes-no wh-, alternative, follow-up, echo, display, two-step) An utterance (most typically in interrogative form) which requires a verbal response from the addressee. Yes-no questions ask if something is true, and require a response of yes or no: A: Are you ready? B: Yes/no. Wh-questions are introduced by words such as who, what, why, and require information to be given in the response: A: What time are you leaving? B: Six o'clock. Alternative questions present options for the respondent to choose from: A: Would you like tea or coffee? B: Er, tea, please. Follow-up questions serve to request further specification. They usually appear as short questions with wh-words: A: I've done lots of work. B: Have you? Like what? A: Like writing a first draft of my essay. Echo questions seek confirmation or clarification of what has been said by repeating part of the speaker's utterance. They often have a declarative word order and an end-position wh-word: A: Pay attention to this! B: Pay attention to what? Display questions seek confirmation of something the speaker already knows, with the purpose of putting knowledge or information on public display. Display questions are common in contexts such as classrooms, quiz shows and other tests of knowledge: Teacher: What is the capital of France?Pupil: Paris. Two-step questions involve a two-stage process in which one question may act as a preface for another question: A: Are you going to the match tonight? B: Yeah, I am. A: Do you mind if I tag along?
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Raised subject Refers to the placing of items as subjects of their clauses in order to create different types of focus. Very often adjectives (easy, difficult, hard, likely, certain, impossible), verbs (seem, appear, look) and mental process verbs in the passive (be found, be considered, be estimated) are involved: To summarise our work is impossible.(to summarise our work, the complement of impossible, is raised as the subject) Jina's quite difficult to understand.(Jina, the object of understand, is raised as the subject) It seems that nobody does anything.(anticipatory it is raised as the subject)
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Rank-shifting Refers to the phenomenon where an item associated with a higher rank in the grammar shifts to a lower rank. In the sentence Two people I know have gone there., the clause I know modifies the head noun people, and is a constituent (an embedded clause) of a subject noun phrase which is of a lower grammatical rank.
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Recipient of action Refers to the person or thing that is the affected participant of an action. In the passive sentence Those houses were built by John Walton., those houses is the recipient of action as well as the grammatical subject. The agent is indicated by the by-phrase by John Walton. In get- and have-pseudo-passive constructions, the grammatical subject is typically the recipient, rather than the agent, of the action (The thief got arrested. Mary had her watch stolen.).
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Reduced clause, reduced question Reduced clauses refer to incomplete clause structures where verbs are ellipted: A: Has he eaten the cauliflower? B: Not all of it. (reduced clause) Reduced questions refer to interrogative clauses where verbs are ellipted. A: You hungry? (reduced question) B: Mm, a bit. They occur in very informal, highly context-dependent situations, especially when meaning is very clear.
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Reduplicative compound, reduplication A form of compound which involves identical or near identical or rhyming bases. Reduplicative compounds are often very informal in usage and are used in talk by or with children (goody-goody, tick-tock (clock), bow-wow (dog), easy-peasy).
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Reference, referent, referring expression Terms used to indicate how speakers and writers refer to people, places, things and ideas. The broad distinctions are endophoric (reference to situation within the text) and exophoric (reference to situation outside the text). Endophoric references are divided into anaphoric and cataphoric. The referent is the entities referred to: referent referring expression The children looked tired. They had been travelling all day. referent referring expression They arrived at the resort. Here at last was a place they could relax.
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Reflexive A construction that contains a verb with a reflexive pronoun object, or a reflexive pronoun complement of a preposition where the referent of the complement is the same as that of the subject: Shall I serve myself? Did you hurt yourself? He kept it all for himself.
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Reformulation Some discourse markers can signal reformulations or alternative expressions, indicating that the speaker has not selected the most appropriate way of expressing things and is refining what they say with a more apt word or phrase. Among such markers are: I mean, so to speak, to put it another way.
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Register Refers to the style of speaking or writing that is used in particular fields of discourse or particular social contexts (e.g. academic writing, journalism, advertising, legal, science and literary conventions).
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Regular verb Refers to the form of verb which simply adds inflections to the base form without any change (base form: cough; present form: cough; -s form: coughs; -ing form: coughing; past form: coughed; -ed participle: coughed).
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Relative clause Relative clauses are of two main kinds: • embedded clauses used to postmodify noun heads (The book that I want is not available in the library.) • sentential relative clauses: which-clauses referring to a whole sentence or stretch of discourse (She's always out when I call, which is very inconvenient.) Normally they are preceded by a relative pronoun.
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Relative pronoun Refers to words (who, whom, whose, which, that) which introduce a relative clause: The lady who runs this shop has just moved. The book that I am reading is fascinating. Sometimes the relative pronoun can be omitted, referred to as a zero relative pronoun.
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Reporting clause, reported clause A reporting clause introduces someone's speech or thoughts (Nick said, 'Hello.' ) The speech or thought itself is contained in the reported clause (She said she was leaving.).
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Request A form of speech act where the speaker desires a particular course of action from the listener, and the listener has a choice whether to act in the way indicated. For example, it can be realised by can/could, will/would, would you like to, would you mind in interrogatives: A: Will you get me a glass of water? B: Yeah. Would you take this letter to the post for me?
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Response token Word or phrase used to acknowledge what a speaker says, and to indicate on the part of the listener interest or engagement in what is being said. Response tokens include minimal response tokens (sounds or words like oh, mm, yeah, okay, no), and non-minimal response tokens, which are frequently made up of adjectives and adverbs or short phrases or clauses (great, exactly, very good, that's true).
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Rhetorical question An interrogative clause used for rhetorical effect, posing a question to which the reader or listener is not expected to give an informative verbal response (Who knows where I'll be next year?).
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the distinctive written symbols and their possible combinations. Participle The non-tensed forms of verbs ending in -ing (working, joining, trying) and -ed (worked, joined, tried) are called the -ing and -ed participles. In irregular verbs, the -ed participles display variant forms (burnt, swollen, taught, taken, gone).
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Homograph, homophone, homonym These terms describe relationships of similarity between words. Homographs are words which have the same spelling (sometimes with different pronunciations) but different meanings: saw (noun and past tense verb); row (/rəʋ/ and /raʋ/) Homophones are words which have the same pronunciation but different meanings: meat-meet, flour-flower, bare-bear Homonyms are unrelated words which share the same pronunciation and spelling: rose (flower and past tense of verb rise) bank (river bank and financial institution) mole (mark on a person's skin and small animal)
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Historic present tense The use of present tense form for past reference. This occurs particularly in narratives, stories or jokes, usually for purposes of dramatising important events: Emma, this friend of mine, brought these photographs out of the family through the years and he's looking at them, and he said 'Oh!' Then suddenly he picks up the book and tears it into pieces. It was amazing, I couldn't believe it.
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