CBAD - Statistics

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Chapter 4: In which of the following data sets would the arithmetic mean NOT be a good measure of central location

0, 8, 8, 9, 10.... (0 is considered an outlier for this set of data)

Chapter 2: A __________________ is a subset of a population

sample

Chapter 2: Which type of error is unavoidable when sampling from a population?

sampling error

Chapter 3: A __________ ____________ is a type of data that allows researchers to investigate the relationship between two variables.

scatter plot

Chapter 3: Which of the following graphical depictions allows you to examine the relationship between two variables?

scatter plot

Chapter 4: Place the steps for using the method of medians in finding quartiles in the proper order

sort the observations, find the median of the entire data set Q2, find the median of the data values that lie below Q2

Chapter 4: Variability

spread of data values or dispersion

Chapter 4: The population standard deviation of the data set 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 is ________________. (round your final answer to 1 decimal place)

1.4

Chapter 4: The mean absolute deviation for the sample data set: 3, 4, 5, and 8 is

1.5

Chapter 4: The sample standard deviation of the data set 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 is ____________.

1.6

Chapter 4: A certain value has a standardized score = 1.75. How many standard deviations from the mean does this value fall? Is this value greater than or less than the mean?

1.75 greater than the mean

Chapter 4: For a given distribution, the range is 60. Assuming the distribution is bell-shaped, the estimated standard deviation =

10 (since the range is 60, xmax - xmin, you divide that number, which is 60, by 6)

Chapter 4: A data set has 60 data points sorted from lowest to highest value. The 20th percentile value will be the ___________th data point, starting from the lowest value.

12

Chapter 4: Descriptive measures derived from a sample (n items) are

statistics

Chapter 2: Identify which of the sampling techniques listed are random

stratified clustered (simple and systematic)

Chapter 4: Shape

symmetrical, skewed, sharply peaked, flat, bimodal

Chapter 2: The __________ population contains all the individuals in which one is interested.

target

Chapter 3: Tables are frequently used to display data because

they are the simplest form of data display, a well-designed table can communicate the meaning of data at a glance

Chapter 2: ______________ _______________ data are quantities that represent or track the values taken by a variable over equally spaced periods

time series

Chapter 3: Column or bar charts can be used to display ________ __________ data using the time periods as the _________ __________.

time series, category labels

Chapter 4: Center

typical or middle values, where the data values are concentrated

Chapter 2: Data

usually are entered into a spreadsheet or database as an n × m matrix. Specifically, each column is a variable (m columns) and each row is an observation (n rows).

Chapter 3: The length of a bar of height of a column in a bar or column chart represents the ______________ of a category.

value

Chapter 3: Column

vertical display of data

Chapter 4: Multiplying data values by a fraction (where the fractions add to 1) and summing results in a ______________ mean

weighted

Chapter 4: Coefficient of variation

which is a unit-free measure of dispersion:

Chapter 4: Median < Midhinge ⇒ Skewed right (longer right tail) Median ≅ Midhinge ⇒ Symmetric (tails roughly equal) Median > Midhinge ⇒ Skewed left (longer left tail)

Median < Midhinge⇒ Skewed right (longer right tail) Median ≅ Midhinge⇒ Symmetric (tails roughly equal) Median > Midhinge⇒ Skewed left (longer left tail)

Chapter 4: The numerical measure, 0xy, is used frequently by financial frequency portfolio managers. This measure is called the

covariance

Chapter 3: Because the intent of the analysis is to study the S&P 500 companies at a point in time, these are ________________ data.

cross-sectional

Chapter 4: The sample correlation coefficient

describes the degree of linearity between paired observations on two quantitative variables X and Y

Chapter 1: Collecting, organizing and summarizing a particular data set are known as __________ statistics.

descriptive

Chapter 3: Stem-and-leaf displays can be used to

determine central tendency and dispersion, analyze the small samples of integer data

Chapter 3: A line chart can be used to...

display time series data, spot trends

Chapter 1: Surveys of corporate recruiters show that ______ and _________________ rank high on their list of hiring criteria.

ethics, personal integrity

Chapter 4: The correlation coefficient values

fall between -1 and +1, inclusive

Chapter 4: True or False: The geometric mean does not mitigate the effect of outliers

false

Chapter 1: Risk assessment of an investment

finance

Chapter 3: A log scale is useful for

financial data that is expected to grow rapidly

Chapter 4: Standard deviations can be compared

for data sets with the same measurement units and similar magnitude, for data sets with the same measurement units

Chapter 4: Quartiles divide the data into __________ equal parts.

four

Chapter 3: Cumulative relative

frequencies accumulate relative frequency values as the bin limits increase.

Chapter 2: Categorical data (also called qualitative data)

have values that are described by words rather than numbers. For example... Diners at a restaurant are asked to rate the food based on the following scale, excellent, good, average, below average, poor.

Chapter 4: Trimmed mean

is calculated like any other mean, except that the highest and lowest k percent of the observations in the sorted data array are removed. The trimmed mean mitigates the effects of extreme high values on either end. For a 5 percent trimmed mean, the Excel function is =TRIMMEAN(Data, 0.10) because .05 + .05 = .10. For the J.D.

Chapter 4: Midhinge

is the average of the first and third quartiles. The midhinge is always exactly halfway between Q1 and Q3, while the median Q2 can be anywhere within the "box," which suggests a new way to describe skewness:

Chapter 4: Range

is the difference between the largest and smallest observations

Chapter 4: Midrange

is the point halfway between the lowest and highest values of X. It is easy to calculate but is not a robust measure of central tendency because it is sensitive to extreme data values.

Chapter 4: An additional measure of dispersion is the ____________ ___________ deviation (MAD). This statistic reveals the average distance from the center. Absolute values must be used; otherwise the deviations around the mean would sum to zero

mean absolute

Chapter 4: The average of absolute differences between the values of the data set and the mean is the

mean absolute deviation

Chapter 4: When monitoring a process distribution, both the __________ and the __________ must be tracked.

mean, variation

Chapter 4: covariance

measures the degree to which the values of X and Y change together.

Chapter 4: Generally, the ______________ is the best measure of center when outliers are present.

median

Chapter 4: In a neighborhood there are five houses listed for sale for the following amounts: $250,000, $275,000, $280,000, $295,000, and $515,000. What is the best measure of center for the price of a house in that neighborhood?

median

Chapter 4: The measure of center where half the values of the data set lie above this is measure and half the values of the data set lie below this measure is known as the

median

Chapter 4: The second quartile is also the

median, 50th percentile

Chapter 4: The __________ is the measure of center that identifies the most frequently occurring value in the data set

mode

Chapter 4: The best measure of central location when using qualitative data set is the

mode

Chapter 4: The owner of a grocery store wanted to determine the brands of soda that customers purchase at the store. When summarizing the data about soda brand purchase the meaningful measure of center is the

mode

Chapter 3: Identify the characteristics below that does NOT describe a Pareto chart.

most common categories appear to the far right of the graph

Chapter 3: Histograms can be used to...

observe the spread or variability of the data, determine the shape of the data,

Chapter 4: Accuracy of grouped estimates depends on

on the number of bins distribution of data within bins bin frequencies.

Chapter 4: The summary measures for grouped data are

only approximate values

Chapter 4: Standardized data

(called a z-score) by transforming each value of the observed data

Chapter 4: Geometric mean

(denoted G) is a multiplicative average, obtained by multiplying the data values and then taking the nth root of the product. This is a measure of central tendency used when all the data values are positive (greater than zero).

Chapter 4: Median

(denoted M) is the 50th percentile or midpoint of the sorted sample data set x1, x2, ..., xn. It separates the upper and lower halves of the sorted observations

Chapter 4: Population variance

(denoted σ 2, where σ is the lowercase Greek letter "sigma") is defined as the sum of squared deviations from the mean divided by the population size:

Chapter 4: Which of the following correlation coefficients indicate the strongest inverse relationship between two variables?

-0.87

Chapter 4: Calculate the standardized score for the following data value. Assume the mean = 100 and the standard deviation = 25: x = 60, z = ?

-1.6 (100 divided by 60)

Chapter 4: The maximum value of a data set is 200 and the minimum value is 80. The midrange is equal to...

140 (80-200 / 2 = 60, 80+60 = 140 and 200-60 = 140)

Chapter 4: Pat's time in the 1600 meter run placed Pat in the 85th percent in the school. what percentage of students are faster than Pat?

15

Chapter 4: A company sold 1000 units in its first year of operation, 1400 units in its second year of operation, and 1680 units in the third year of operation. The average growth rate of the company's sales from years 1 to 3 is _______ %

29.61 (2 above square root... in square root, 1680 / 1000, out of square root, - 1, which equals = .2961)

Chapter 4: The mode(s) for the data set: 4, 4, 5, 6, 9, 9 is

4 and 9

Chapter 4: If a company sold 1000 units in its first year if operation, and 1400 units in its second year of operation, then the growth rate of the company's sales is _______ %

40

Chapter 4: For the data set 4, 5 , 6, and 9 the arithmetic mean is

6...... add values together and divide by 4

Chapter 4: The range for the data set: 2, 5, 5, 7, and 10 is:

8

Chapter 4: Suppose a data set has 80 data points. A 5% trimmed mean would be calculated by removing the ______________ highest values and the ______________ lowest values.

80 x 5% = 4....... answer is 4

Chapter 4: Using Chebyshev's theorem at least ________________ % of observations should fall within 2.5 standard deviations of the mean.

84

Chapter 4: The empirical rule states that approximately _______% of observations will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean

95% (68% with 1)

Chapter 4: If Fund A has a coefficient of variation of 1.1, and Fund B has a coefficient of variation of 0.9, Fund ______ has a greater

A

Chapter 4: Place the following steps in order, from beginning to end, to create a box plot

Calculate the five number summary values plot the five-number summary values in numerical order on a horizontal or vertical axis, draw a box from Q1 to Q3, then add lines from Q1 to the minimum value and Q3 to the maximum value

Chapter 2: Census or Sample A) Budget constraints can make this necessary. B) Legal requirements sometimes mandate this. C) An examination of all items in a population D) Looking at only selected items in a population

Census: B and C Sample: A and D

Chapter 1: True or False: Business managers want to see detailed numerical explanations in technical reports.

False

Chapter 4: True or False: the standard deviation can be a negative value

False

Chapter 3: Excel's pivot table features

It allows interactive analysis, summarize categorical data, categorizes discrete numerical data

Chapter 4: mean

It is the sum of the data values divided by the number of data items. For a population we denote it μ, while for a sample we call it x⎯⎯x¯.

Chapter 4: Skewed left (negative skewness)

Long tail of histogram points left (a few low values but most data on right)

Chapter 4: Skewed right (positive skewness)

Long tail of histogram points right (most data on left but a few high values)

Chapter 4: or small data sets, you can find the quartiles using the method of medians:

Step 1: Sort the observations. Step 2: Find the median Q2. Step 3: Find the median of the data values that lie below Q2. Step 4: Find the median of the data values that lie above Q2.

Chapter 4: Symmetric

Tails of histogram are balanced (low/high values offset)

Chapter 4: Which of the items below describes the usefulness of a standard deviation?

To gauge the relative position of data values within the data set

Chapter 4: True or False: The empirical rule should be applied to data sets that are normally distributed or nearly normally distributed.

True

Chapter 4: To calculate the arithmetic mean

all the data points must be added together, then divided by the number of data points.

Chapter 4: Quartiles

are scale points that divide the sorted data into four groups of approximately equal size, that is, the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, respectively.

Chapter 4: The owner of BevaMart wants to study the relationship between the temperature and hot chocolate sales. The owner computed the covariance between temperature and hot chocolate sale to be -81.46. Based on the covariance, which option best describes the linear relationship between temperature and hot chocolate?

as the temperature increases, hot chocolate sales decrease

Chapter 4: When calculating a percentile, the first step is to arrange the data set in

ascending order (from least to greatest)

Chapter 1: A sample of errors from invoice statements

auditing

Chapter 4: The arithmetic mean is the "__________" with which most of us are familiar.

average

Chapter 4: A useful tool of exploratory data analysis (EDA) is the ______ ________ (also called a box-and-whisker plot) based on the five-number summary:

box plot

Chapter 4: Place in order, from beginning to end, the steps to calculate the mean absolute deviation

calculate the arithmetic mean for the data set, find the absolute difference between each value and the mean, sum the absolute differences, divide by the sample (or the population) size

Chapter 4: The first quartile and third quartile is also the

center, variability

Chapter 4: For a sample of numerical data, we are interested in three key characteristics:

center, variability, and shape.

Chapter 4: Which of the following characteristics can be seen on a boxplot?

center, variability, shape

Chapter 4: When comparing two data sets with different units of measurement, what is the relative measure of dispersion?

coefficient of variation (CV)

Chapter 4: The skewness coefficient can be used to

compare two samples with different measurement units, compare one sample to a known reference distribution

Chapter 4: Which of the following situations are valid reasons for removing an outlier from a data set?

if the data point was typed incorrectly into the spreadsheet, if the observed value was taken from a population different from the one under study

Chapter 4: If covariance is positive, then as one variable increases the other variable will generally

increase

Chapter 4: Standard deviation

is a single number that helps us understand how individual values in a data set vary from the mean. Because the square root has been taken, its units of measurement are the same as X (e.g., dollars, kilograms, miles).

Chapter 4: Weighted means

is a sum that assigns each data value a weight wj that represents a fraction of the total (i.e., the k weights must sum to 1)

Chapter 4: For a population (N items or infinite) they are

parameters

Chapter 4: The first step to determine the median is to

place the data in numerical order

Chapter 4: The ___________ measures the difference between the smallest and largest values in a data set.

range

Chapter 4: The interquartile range of a data set

represents the middle 50% of the data is calculated by subtracting the first quartile from the third quartile

Chapter 4: Which of the following can be used to determine the proportion of data points that fall within a specified number of standard deviation from the mean?

the empirical rule-assuming a normal distribution, Chebyshev's Theorem

Chapter 3: The pictured graph from the New York Times op-ed piece has some misleading components to it: which of the following elements are misleading?

the higher by position the category icon the lower the rating, all the ratings arrows end at the same point regardless of the actual rating

Chapter 4: When the data are skewed right (or positively skewed)...

the mean exceeds the median.

Chapter 4: When the data are skewed left (or negatively skewed)...

the mean is below the median.

Chapter 4: When calculating a mean for grouped data

the midpoint of each bin is used to approximate the individual values in that bin

Chapter 4: Mode

the most frequently occurring data value.

Chapter 4: A box plot is constructed using several different values. Which of the following values are included in a box plot?

the second quartile, the third quartile, the smallest value

Chapter 3: Identify the problem with the pictured graph

the vertical axis limit is too high, there is no 0 value on the vertical axis, the time ranged needs to be specified

Chapter 2: Which of the following characteristics of interest is a variable?

The number of pizzas ordered from Pizza Hut per day.

Chapter 1: True or False: There are generally accepted statistical methods for dealing with missing data and unusual data.

True

Chapter 3: Relative frequencies

are calculated as the absolute frequency for a bin divided by the total number of data values.

Chapter 3: Pie chart

because of their visual appeal, pie charts appear daily in company annual reports and the popular press

Chapter 3: Stacked Dot Plot

can be used to compare two or more groups.

Chapter 2: The nominal scale of measurement is used to...

categorize unranked data

Chapter 1: Some experts prefer to call statistics...

data science

Chapter 2: Continuous (example)

A numerical variable that can have any value within an interval is (the finishing times for running the 100 meter dash)

Chapter 2: Discrete (example)

A variable with a countable number of distinct values is (the number of dots face up on a roll of a pair of die)

Chapter 2: A __________________ includes all members of the group of interest.

population

Chapter 1: Descriptive statistics

refers to the collection, organization, presentation, and summary of data (either using charts and graphs or using a numerical summary).

Chapter 3: The vertical (y axis) for an ogive can be labeled as...

relative cumulative frequency, cumulative frequency

Chapter 2: Coding (Example)

On occasion the values of the categorical variable might be represented using numbers (a database might code payment methods using numbers: 1 = cash 2 = check 3 = credit/debit card 4 = gift card).

Chapter 2: Stratified Sample

Select randomly within defined strata (by age, occupation, gender).

Chapter 2: Data Set

consists of all the values of all of the variables for all of the observations we have chosen to observe.

Chapter 2: Data set

consists of all the values of all of the variables for all of the observations we have chosen to observe.

Chapter 3: Ogive

is a line graph of the cumulative frequencies. It is useful for finding percentiles or in comparing the shape of the sample with a known benchmark such as the normal distribution (that you will be seeing in the next chapter).

Chapter 1: Which of the following are rules for a data analyst?

maintain data integrity, know and follow accepted procedures, protect confidential information

Chapter 2: Which of the following are examples of the interval scale of measurement?

many Likert scales, a golfer's score relative to par

Chapter 2: Parameter V.S. Statistic examples A) The average age of all students currently enrolled at the Leads School of Business (population of students is only current students). B) The average starting salary for 25 students from this year's Leeds' MBA graduating class of 110 students. C) The average GPA for a sample of 40 students from this year's graduating class at The Leeds School of Business.

parameter: A statistic: B and C

Chapter 2: Which of the following are examples of the nominal scale?

social security numbers, specialty sandwich names at a fast food restaurant, designating males as 1 and females as 2 to compare gender performance on an aptitude test.

Chapter 2: Which of the following are examples of time series data?

the monthly Consumer Confidence Index for the past three years. average annual credit card debt over the past decade.

Chapter 3: A relative frequency distribution for quantitative data identifies...

the proportion of observations that occur in each bin

Chapter 2: The sample size is determined by the _____________ in the population of the interest and desired ______________ parameter being estimated.

variability, precision

Chapter 3: Sorting data is helpful because

we can see the range of values we can see the frequency of each data value

Chapter 3: Place the following steps in order to explain how to construct a polygon.

1. Construct a frequency distribution 2. Find the midpoint for each class of the frequency distribution 3. The midpoints are plotted based on the frequency for the respective class 4. Neighboring midpoints are connected together by a straight line

Chapter 2: Match the survey type to an issue for consideration. A) Mail B) Telephone C) Interviews D) Web 1) Expect low response rates due to a poorly targeted list of people. 2) Growing in popularity but need to be well-targeted. 3) Can be expensive but result are often high-quality. 4) Requires a well targeted, current list of people.

A) 4 B) 1 C) 3 D) 4

Chapter 3: Which variables could be displayed on a log scale?

GDP, real estate values in a fast moving market

Chapter 3: If the data were collected from a random sample we must allow for __________ error.

Sampling

Chapter 2: Systematic Sample

Select every kth item from a list or sequence (restaurant customers).

Chapter 3: Which characteristic below is NOT a rule of thumb for displaying categorical data on a column chart?

The height of each column should be the same

Chapter 3: A relative frequency distribution for quantitative data identifies...

The proportion of observations that occur in each bin

Chapter 1: True or False: Statistics support critical thinking by helping one identify illogical conclusions or to see holes in another's argument.

True

Chapter 1: True or False: Successful businesses expect their employees to have some knowledge of statistics.

True

Chapter 2: Simple Random Sample (and example)

Use random numbers to select items from a list (Visa cardholders).

Chapter 2: XYZ Corporation made a profit of #3 million last year. ABC Corporation made a profit of #6 million last year. Based on the ratio scale, which of the following is an accurate statement about the relationship between ABC's profit and XYZ's profit?

XYZ was half as profitable as ABC.

Chapter 1: Data science

a trilogy of tasks involving data modeling, analysis, and decision making.

Chapter 3: Cumulative frequency distributions show...

accumulated counts up to and including the current bin as the bin limits increase

Chapter 1: Which of the following are responsibilities of a data analyst?

accurately reporting information, identifying degrees of uncertainty

Chapter 3: An outlier is defined as...

an extreme value that is located at the tail of the histogram (Mean < Median), an extreme value that might have arisen from a different cause (Mean ≈ Median), an extreme value is might have arisen from measurement error (Mean > Median).

Chapter 2: Numerical data (also called quantitative data)... example

arise from counting, measuring something, or some kind of mathematical operation. For example, we could count the number of auto insurance claims filed in March (e.g., 114 claims) or sales for last quarter (e.g., $4,920), or we could measure the amount of snowfall over the last 24 hours (e.g., 3.4 inches).

Chapter 3: There are several guidelines one should follow when creating graphs. Which of the following describe these guidelines?

axes should be clearly labeled, axes that are numerical should be to the appropriate scale, novelty graphs such as pyramids chart introduce ambiguity

Chapter 2: In sampling, ____________ refers to over or underestimate a population parameter of interest.

bias

Chapter 3: One of the primary goals of constructing a frequency distribution of quantitative data is to summarize the data...

by showing frequency of values that lie within a class or bin

Chapter 3: Dot plots can show which features of a data set?

center, variability, shape

Chapter 2: Identify which of the sampling techniques listed are non-random.

convenience focus group (and judgement)

Chapter 3: Characteristics of a bar chart include...

display horizontal bars when the axis labels are long or there are many categories, length or height of bar reflects frequency of a category

Chapter 3: A pie chart is never used to

display time series data.

Chapter 3: Bar

horizontal display of data

Chapter 2: Variable

is a characteristic of the subject or individual, such as an employee's income or an invoice amount.

Chapter 3: histogram

is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution... appearance in identical

Chapter 1: Statistics

is a set of tools which helps organizing, presenting information, and extracting meaning from raw data.

Chapter 1: Statistic

is a single measure, reported as a number, used to summarize a sample data set

Chapter 2: Observation

is a single member of a collection of items that we want to study, such as a person, firm, or region. An example of an observation is an employee or an invoice mailed last month.

Chapter 3: Frequency distribution

is a table formed by classifying n data values into k classes called bins (we adopt this terminology from Excel). The bin limits define the values to be included in each bin.

Chapter 3: Dot Plot

is another simple graphical display of n individual values of numerical data. The basic steps in making a dot plot are to (1) make a scale that covers the data range, (2) mark axis demarcations and label them, and (3) plot each data value as a dot above the scale at its approximate location.

Chapter 3: Line chart

is used to display a time series, to spot trends, or to compare time periods. Line charts can be used to display several variables at once. If two variables are displayed, the right and left scales can differ, using the right scale for one variable and the left scale for the other.

Chapter 1: The specialized vocabulary of statistics crosses __________ barriers to improve problem solving for multinational businesses.

language

Chapter 3: In general, the ___________ limit is included in the bin, while the __________ limit is excluded.

lower, upper

Chapter 1: Identifying repeat customers

marketing

Chapter 2: A significant weakness of the ordinal scale is...

no clear meaning to differences between the ranked values

Chapter 1: Distribution of inventory items in a big box store

operations management

Chapter 1: Inferential statistics

refers to generalizing from a sample to a population, estimating unknown population parameters, drawing conclusions, and making decisions.

Chapter 1: A company code of ethics addresses things such as (check all that apply)

sources of data inaccuracy, conflicts of interest, policies on confidentiality

Chapter 3: Pareto chart

special type of column chart used in business. displays categorical data, with categories displayed in descending order of frequency, so that the most common categories appear first.

Chapter 2: A ______________ is a numerical summary of a sample whereas ______________ is a numerical summary that describes a population.

statistic parameter

Chapter 3: Stacked column chart

the bar height is the sum of several subtotals. Areas may be compared by color to show patterns in the subgroups, as well as showing the total. Stacked column charts can be effective for any number of groups but work best when you have only a few. Use numerical labels if exact data values are of importance.

Chapter 3: When constructing bins for a frequency distribution of quantitative data, which if the following principles should generally be followed?

the bins should be exhaustive, bins should be mutually exclusive, bins should have the same width

Chapter 3: Which of the following is NOT a common error one should beware

unembellished charts that do not contain sound or animationSt

Chapter 2: Binary Variable (example)

Some categorical variables have only two values (employment status, employed or unemployed, mutual fund type, load or no-load), and marital status, currently married or not currently married...Binary variables are often coded using a 1 or 0. a variable such as gender could be coded as: 1 = female 0 = male).

Chapter 1: Which statistical pitfall does the following statement match? People who belong to health clubs tend to have college degrees therefore exercise increases your IQ

Assuming A Causal Link

Chapter 3: Set bin limits

Just as choosing the number of bins requires judgment, setting the bin limits also requires judgment. For guidance, find the approximate width of each bin by dividing the data range by the number of bins: Bin width≈ xmax-xmin / k

Chapter 2: If each observation represents a different individual unit (like a person, firm, geographic area) at the same point in time, we have

Cross sectional data

Chapter 1: Which of the following are examples of inferential statistics?

Prof. Stats randomly selects 50 female students at State University to estimate the average height of all female students at State. A manufacturer of light bulbs randomly selects 100 light bulbs to test the longevity of all light bulbs that the company produces.

Chapter 2: Cluster Sample

Select random geographical regions (e.g., zip codes) that represent the population.

Chapter 3: Stem-and-Leaf Plot

The stem-and-leaf plot is a tool of exploratory data analysis (EDA) that seeks to reveal essential data features in an intuitive way. A stem-and-leaf plot is basically a frequency tally, except that we use digits instead of tally marks

Chapter 3: Frequency polygon

is a line graph that connects the midpoints of the histogram bin intervals, plus extra intervals at the beginning and end so that the line will touch the X-axis.

Chapter 3: The rectangles of a histogram...

represent grouped data, represent the class width and frequency/relative frequency of the respective class, are drawn with no space gaps between them except when there is no data in a particular bin


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