Ch 1-4
Lexical/Explanatory Definition
- establishes the agreed-upon understanding of a term - Consensus definition - Dictionary definitions/ agreed upon source of info - Used to decide whether true or false
Principles of persuasive writing
- strongest argument should be presented first - if opposition's argument is good, you should concede it is good
When evaluating argument look at: (4 things)
1. Arguer's Intent 2. Structure Test 2. Content Test 3. Ampliativity
3 steps to Diagram Argument
1. Identify conclusion 2. Identify and number claims 3. circle indicators
Things to look for in determining if something is an argument (2):
1. Role/intent of speaker: what are they trying to do 2. What is audience prepared to accept/ believe, prior knowledge?
things that affect people's observations
1. beliefs and fears 2. physical surroundings (light, noise, distance, sight perspective) 3. expectations 4. emotional/ mental state
ways claims can lack credibility ( 3)
1. conflict w/ direct observation 2. conflict w/ background info 3. lack credible source
ways to acquire board general knowledge (3)
1. inquiring attitude 2. read widely 3. converse freely
2 categories of doubting a source:
1. knowledge and expertise 2. objectivity and accuracy
you entitled to say you know something when (2 reasons)
1. you have no reason to believe you are mistaken 2. you have solid evidence for believing it
ways to judge a person's expertise (5)
1.education 2. experience 3. accomplishments 4. reputation 5. positions
sources of obscurity in a claim (3)
- excessive vagueness - ambiguity - undefined terms
Stipulative Definition
- introduce a new term - series of things put together and given a name - Can't be true or false (for the purpose of) Ex. letter represented by symbol
Number claims and Diagram argument: The slide in the dollar must be stopped. It contributes to inflation and increases the cost of imports. True, it helps exports, but on balance it is bad for the economy.
2 3 4 \ | x 5 / 1
Implied Claim
Not stated but clearly implied given context
an inference to the best explanation is often called _______
abduction
Etymological Definition
based on the origin of word
disinterested party
person / no stake in our belief in claim one way or another.
________ are properties of objective propositions like beliefs, opinions, and claims
trust and falsity
Precising definition
- sharpens an existing definition to eliminate vagueness while remaining true to original definition
conclusion indicator
A word or phrase (e.g., "therefore") that ordinarily indicates the presence of the conclusion of an argument
an if then sentence is considered to be an argument. True or False
False
experienced philosophers or other experts in their field rarely make mistakes. True or False?
False
in logic, an argument is a feud or conflict. True or False?
False
Persuasive "definition"
Replacing definitions w/ manipulation - put emotive language in to slant definition and make you think positively/negatively about something
Vagueness vs. Ambiguity
Vagueness: unclear whether something meets definition of term Ambiguity: word/ phrase has more than one meaning
Deductive Structure and Content Test
Validity and soundness
Number claims and diagram argument: Vote for Kucinich? No way. He's too radical, and he's too inexperienced, and those two things make him dangerous. I do like his stand on trade, but I still don't think you should vote for him.
Vote for Kucinich? No way (1). He's too radical (2), and he's too inexperienced (3), and those two things make him dangerous (4). I do like his stand on trade (5), but I still don't think you should vote for him (1). 2+3+4 5 \ x 1
Deciding which car to buy requires thinking; critical thinking, however, involves considering a. whether you have good reasons for choosing a particular car. b. how to finance the car. c. whether you need a car at all. d. whether it would be a more environmentally sound choice to ride a bike.
a. whether you have good reasons for choosing a particular car.
Validity
accepting that premises as true would force you to accept conclusion as true
Argument Strength
accepting the premises as true would give you good reason to accept the conclusion as true
examples of words that indicate a conclusion
accordingly, consequently, therefore
what pressures does the media face?
advertisers, owners and managers, government, other news sources
if a word or phrase has two or more meanings, it is said to be __________
ambiguous
a ___________ definition specifies the features a thing must have in order for the term being defined to apply to it
analytical
The truth part of evaluating an argument involves
analyzing whether the premises are true
Synonymous Definition
another word/phrase with the same meaning used to define
Operational Definition
appealing to/using process to explain term - experiment
an _________ presents a consideration for accepting a claim
argument
sound argument
argument valid and premises are true
Argument is a tool for resolving disputes and must have:
at least one claim/premise and one conclusion
"The dry cleaner on the corner is an eyesore." This is a subjective claim because it a. is a claim. b. depends on what you think an eyesore is. c. doesn't depend on what you think an eyesore is. d. depends on what the neighbors think.
b. depends what you think an eyesore is
" I believe Aristotle's argument because he is a renowned philosopher." This is an example of: a. logos b. ethos c. pathos
b. ethos
A statement can be: a. an argument. b. the conclusion of one argument and a premise in another. c. both a premise and an argument. d. a fundamental type of reasoning.
b. the conclusion of one argument and a premise in another.
background info
body of justified beliefs that consists of facts we learn from our own direct observations and facts we learn from others. Often confirmed by variety of sources.
Whether Moore is taller than Parker is: a. a subjective issue. b. a subjective claim. c. an objective issue. d. an objective claim.
c. an objective issue.
be wary of using language referring to certain groups categorized by ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation etc. if unnecessary or irrelevant because
can be perceived as a bias, or make info inaccurate
main characteristic of good ostensive/example definition
clarity
Premise Indicator
conclusionA word or phrase (e.g., "in light of the fact") that ordinarily indicates
where there is an unstated premise, you should use the _______ and ______ to clarify if the argument is deductive or inductive
content and context
which claim has initial plausibility and does not rely on bias, misinformation, or further evidence? a. all news from cable is controlled by advertisers b. the universe was created by the Big Bang c. all people from Asia are short d. certain species of turtles come to land to give birth
d. certain species of turtles come to land to give birth
a movie can be considered a (n) a. argument b. premise c. conclusion d. none of the above
d. none of the above
"Decaffeinated" means "without caffeine." term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?
decaffeinated, synonym
a (n) _______ is simply a question
issue
Steve Martin is my idea of a successful philosophy major term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?
successful philosophy major, example
The chicken is ready to eat. What type of ambiguity is this?
syntactic
______ ambiguity results when there is a structural problem in a claim
syntactic
purpose of good argumentative essay
take a position on an argument and support it with argument
A(n) ________ definition specifies the features that a thing must possess for the term being defined to apply to it.
Analytical
Who is considered to be the father of logic?
Aristotle
For a critical thinker, the biggest problem with rhetorical or persuasive definitions is that they A. are too subtle and complex. B. attempt to influence beliefs. C. are usually incomplete. D. do not sufficiently reduce vagueness.
B. attempt to influence beliefs.
Which of the following is the most general statement? A. That professor failed to give any constructive feedback on my paper. B. I've never before had such a disorganized and unhelpful professor. C. I've got a problem with that professor. D. That professor is very disorganized.
C. I've got a problem with that professor.
Counter-evidence
Claim that goes against conclusion
Chain Argument
Conclusion to one argument is a premise to another (sub conclusion)
A(n) ________ is a definition that points to, names, or describes something to which the defined term applies.
Definition by example
'Language' means something like French, German, Spanish, English, and so on. This example is an example of a(n) _______ definition.
Enumerative
Explanation vs. Argument
Explanation intended to provide info, argument intended to persuade based on evidence
Neurosis' means a chronic emotional disturbance that arises from suppressed or forgotten emotional stress (such as resentment, hostility, aggression, or guilt) experienced in early childhood. This is an example of a(n) ______ definition
Explanatory
"This warranty becomes void if the owner uses the hammer improperly." The part of this statement that is arguably vague is "warranty." True or False?
False
An "interested party" is a person who makes a claim that we have good reason to accept. Most often, the cause of such a person's credibility is his or her knowledge. True or False?
False
Credibility is an all or nothing proposition; a claim is either credible or it isn't. True or False?
False
Inductive arguments are evaluated with the terms "valid" and "invalid." True or False?
False
Precising definitions reduce ambiguity or vagueness by creating a new definition for a given term. True or False?
False
What makes a claim subjective is that it can't be supported by reasons. True or False?
False
conclusion
In an argument, the claim for which a premise is supposed to give a reason
Number claims and Diagram Argument: It's high time professional boxing was outlawed. Boxing almost always leads to brain damage, and anything that does that ought to be done away with. Besides, it supports organized crime
It's high time professional boxing was outlawed (1) . Boxing almost always leads to brain damage (2) , and anything that does that ought to be done away with (3) . Besides, it supports organized crime (4) 2+3 4 \ / 1
Not all claims are sentences, and not all sentences are claims, but sentences can express claims. Give example of each.
Just claim: 2 + 3 = 5 Just sentence: Are you hungry? Both: I am hungry
An 'electric currant' flows in a circuit if and only if an ammeter connected in series with the circuit shows a reading. This is an example of a(n) _______definition.
Operational
Claim
Single piece of info that is either true or false. Basic building block of critical thinking and logic.
Content Test for Argument
Tests the truth value of a well formed argument's premises
Premise
The claim or claims in an argument that provide the reasons for believing the conclusion
most likely the reason why advertisers, owners, and managers pressure the media?
The media is driven by the necessity to make a profit
Number claims and diagram argument: They really ought to build a new airport. It would attract more business to the area, not to mention the fact that the old airport is overcrowded and dangerous.
They really ought to build a new airport (1). It would attract more business to the area (2), not to mention the fact that the old airport is overcrowded (3) and dangerous (4). 2 3+4 \ / 1
How is news on social media sites biased and how does it affect observer?
Things sent to us are often tailored to our interests by website viewing history => echoing and reinforcing our interests, preferences and biases
Topic vs. Issue
Topic: Any subject of conversation - can't be true or false Issue: point of contention within topic - can be true or false
Ampliativity comes at the expense of certainty. True or False?
True
Identifying premises and conclusions is complicated by the fact that (a) conclusions are sometimes used as premises in another argument and (b) either may be unstated. True or False?
True
In an Inductive Argument, a strong, cogent argument can have a false conclusion. True or False?
True
In logic, an argument is a feud or conflict. True or false?
True
Objective claims can be true or false. : True or false?
True
Premises are absent in a piece of true rhetoric. True or False?
True
We judge deductive arguments in terms of validity and soundness, but we judge inductive ones in terms of strength or weakness. True or False?
True
Words such as "thus," "therefore," and "consequently" usually indicate that a conclusion is about to be offered. True or False?
True
simply being taller, speaking louder, and being more assertive can often make a person appear more credible. True or False?
True
A claims initial plausibility is assessed by: a. How well the claim fits with one's background information b. One's gut reaction to the claim c. The credibility of the person making the claim d. The first one or two arguments that are made in support of the claim
a. How well the claim fits with one's background information
"There is life on Mars" is an objective claim because a. only science can determine whether it is true or false. b. its truth or falsity cannot be known. c. whether it is true or false is independent of people thinking it is true or false. Correct d. it has been expressed in a declarative sentence—a sentence that is either true or false.
a. Whether it is true or false is independent of people thinking it is true or false
which of these would most likely affect your recollection of a doctor's appointment? a. fear of appointment b. reputation of hospital c. family's recommendations d. doctor's claims
a. fear of appointment
in which type of argument do the premises support the conclusion: a. inductive b. deductive c. sound d. invalid
a. inductive
An "issue" a. poses a question. b. can only be objective. c. can only be subjective. d. is the same as an opinion.
a. poses a question.
a belief is said to be propositional, which means it can be expressed in a(n) _______
declarative sentence
Soundness
deductive, valid argument is sound if it has all true premises
Enumerative Definition
defining by listing all individual members in the term
Subclass Definition
defining by listing types of things making up the term => can be opened or closed, list individuals or types
Ostensive/demonstrative definition
defining by pointing at/out examples of the term
We can consider sources objective if they are _________
disinterested parties
ethos ad
displays product being used/ endorsed by ppl we admire, identify with or feel we can trust. Goal is to make us remember product when shopping/ positive association
Logos ad
emphasize info about a product that advertisers hope favorably influence consumer's decision about buying product
rationality
evaluate our thinking to come to correct conclusions
"I was late to class because my car broke down." Does because indicate a premise or explanation?
explanation
claim
expressing belief, judgement, or opinion in declarative sentence
the less initial plausibility a claim has, the more __________ it seems. The less the claim fits with our background info, the more ___________ we should be.
extraordinary, suspicious
beyond a reasonable doubt is a type of deductive proof. True or false?
false
Secretaries make more money than physicians. What type of ambiguity is this?
grouping
moral subjectivism
idea that moral opinions are subjective
Cogency ( clear, logical, convincing)
inductive, strong argument is Cogent if it has all true premises
type of reasoning that compares alternative hypotheses to find the one with the best predictive accuracy. Compares evidence to find the most likely explanation
inference to the best explanation
pathos ad
intended to arouse emotions, and stimulate positive emotion when shopping or negative emotion to make us think poorly of something/someone
Independent Reasoning
it alone gives reason to believe conclusion, doesn't depend on other claims
Intention Definition (and types)
list of characteristics you need to qualify for definition Synonymous, Etymological, Operational, Analytic
Extension Definition (and types)
list of members that make up term Enumerative, Subclass, Ostensive/demonstrative -closed/complete extension - give a full list of members in definition - open/incomplete - give a few members of definition to give enough info - Empty - know the intention of term but there are no members that fit into definition
which type of rhetoric is least affect when trying to persuade an audience?
logos
The fewer hands that control the media, the easier it is for the news to be __________
managed
Dependent Reasoning
multiple claims needed to be put together to give reason to believe conclusion
Ampliativity
net gain in knowledge
premising definitions should be _________ in nature
neutral
In the sentence "Our nifty concrete lawn duck is no longer on the lawn," the part that makes it a subjective claim is the idea that the duck was
nifty
a claim lacks inherent credibility when it conflicts with ______
observer's background info
An argument consists of at least
one premise and one conclusion
reasonable opinion
one that agrees with most authoritative opinion but allows for enough open-mindedness to change if the evidence changes
a definition by example is also called a(n) __________ definition
ostensive
the reliability of our observations is no better than the reliability of _________
our memory
our most reliable source of information about the world/ most sought after is
our own observations
interested party
person who stands to gain from our belief in a claim (must be viewed w/ more suspicion)
A piano is a stringed instrument in which felt hammers are made to strike the strings by an arrangement of keys and levers. term being defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?
piano, analytical
Aaron saw Ben after his Bat Mitzvah. What type of ambiguity is this?
pronoun reference
a deductive argument __________ the conclusion
proves or demonstrates
"I wasn't driving recklessly. Please don't give me a ticket." Which term in claim could result in vagueness?
recklessly
The red planet is Mars. term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?
red planet, synonym
Initial plausibility
rough assessments that we make of how credible claims seem based on our own background information
__________ ambiguity arises when a word or phrase has more than one meaning
semantic
An argument is ___________ if it is valid and all its premises are true.
sound
when true premises result in a true conclusion, the argument is valid and ________
sound
generality is lack of ______
specificity
Analytic Definition
specifying the features a thing must possess in order for the term being defined to apply to it defining something by asking 1. What type of thing is it/ what group does it belong to 2. How is it unique within that group
In this case the "defendant" will refer to Professor Plum. What kind of definition?
stipulative
Inductive structure and content test
strength and cogency
The more support the premise of an inductive argument provides for the conclusion, the _________ the argument.
stronger
the more support the premise of an inductive argument provides for the conclusion, the ________ the argument
stronger
Saying that Paris is the most beautiful city in the world is a ________ claim.
subjective
Structure Test for Argument
tests the relationship between premises and conclusion
Objective Dispute
the answer exists and has nothing to do with our opinion (facts)
Subjective Dispute
the answer is a matter of personal opinion or has no outside answer (opinions)
When considering credibility consider both ______ and ________
the claim, its source
Deductive Arguer's Intent
the conclusion is necessary given the premises
Inductive Arguer's Intent
the conclusion is reasonable/probable given the Premises
in a valid deductive argument, it is impossible for
the premise to be true and the conclusion to be false
the conclusion of the argument is also called the ______
thesis
critical thinking involves
thinking about thinking
what is the ultimate objective of thinking critically?
to make wise decisions
"Earth is larger in size than Jupiter". even though this statement is false, it is still an objective opinion. True or false?
true
rhetorical definitions are not truly definitions in that they do not provide agreed-upon meanings of words. true or false?
true
whether a subjective claim is true or false is dependent on whether people think it is true or false. true or false?
true
lexical definition
type of definition given in a dictionary that tells us universal agreed upon telling us what word ordinarily means
in a inductive argument, when the premises do not adequately support the conclusion the argument is ______
weak
reasons for doubting an argument? (3)
weak, irrelevant, invalid
The difference between "deductive reasoning" and "inductive reasoning" is that
with deductive reasoning, we try to demonstrate a conclusion; with inductive reasoning, we try to support a conclusion.
can balance of consideration arguments include both inductive and deductive reasoning?
yes