Ch 1-4

Lexical/Explanatory Definition

- establishes the agreed-upon understanding of a term - Consensus definition - Dictionary definitions/ agreed upon source of info - Used to decide whether true or false

Principles of persuasive writing

- strongest argument should be presented first - if opposition's argument is good, you should concede it is good

When evaluating argument look at: (4 things)

1. Arguer's Intent 2. Structure Test 2. Content Test 3. Ampliativity

3 steps to Diagram Argument

1. Identify conclusion 2. Identify and number claims 3. circle indicators

Things to look for in determining if something is an argument (2):

1. Role/intent of speaker: what are they trying to do 2. What is audience prepared to accept/ believe, prior knowledge?

things that affect people's observations

1. beliefs and fears 2. physical surroundings (light, noise, distance, sight perspective) 3. expectations 4. emotional/ mental state

ways claims can lack credibility ( 3)

1. conflict w/ direct observation 2. conflict w/ background info 3. lack credible source

ways to acquire board general knowledge (3)

1. inquiring attitude 2. read widely 3. converse freely

2 categories of doubting a source:

1. knowledge and expertise 2. objectivity and accuracy

you entitled to say you know something when (2 reasons)

1. you have no reason to believe you are mistaken 2. you have solid evidence for believing it

ways to judge a person's expertise (5)

1.education 2. experience 3. accomplishments 4. reputation 5. positions

sources of obscurity in a claim (3)

- excessive vagueness - ambiguity - undefined terms

Stipulative Definition

- introduce a new term - series of things put together and given a name - Can't be true or false (for the purpose of) Ex. letter represented by symbol

Number claims and Diagram argument: The slide in the dollar must be stopped. It contributes to inflation and increases the cost of imports. True, it helps exports, but on balance it is bad for the economy.

2 3 4 \ | x 5 / 1

Implied Claim

Not stated but clearly implied given context

an inference to the best explanation is often called _______

abduction

Etymological Definition

based on the origin of word

disinterested party

person / no stake in our belief in claim one way or another.

________ are properties of objective propositions like beliefs, opinions, and claims

trust and falsity

Precising definition

- sharpens an existing definition to eliminate vagueness while remaining true to original definition

conclusion indicator

A word or phrase (e.g., "therefore") that ordinarily indicates the presence of the conclusion of an argument

an if then sentence is considered to be an argument. True or False

False

experienced philosophers or other experts in their field rarely make mistakes. True or False?

False

in logic, an argument is a feud or conflict. True or False?

False

Persuasive "definition"

Replacing definitions w/ manipulation - put emotive language in to slant definition and make you think positively/negatively about something

Vagueness vs. Ambiguity

Vagueness: unclear whether something meets definition of term Ambiguity: word/ phrase has more than one meaning

Deductive Structure and Content Test

Validity and soundness

Number claims and diagram argument: Vote for Kucinich? No way. He's too radical, and he's too inexperienced, and those two things make him dangerous. I do like his stand on trade, but I still don't think you should vote for him.

Vote for Kucinich? No way (1). He's too radical (2), and he's too inexperienced (3), and those two things make him dangerous (4). I do like his stand on trade (5), but I still don't think you should vote for him (1). 2+3+4 5 \ x 1

Deciding which car to buy requires thinking; critical thinking, however, involves considering a. whether you have good reasons for choosing a particular car. b. how to finance the car. c. whether you need a car at all. d. whether it would be a more environmentally sound choice to ride a bike.

a. whether you have good reasons for choosing a particular car.

Validity

accepting that premises as true would force you to accept conclusion as true

Argument Strength

accepting the premises as true would give you good reason to accept the conclusion as true

examples of words that indicate a conclusion

accordingly, consequently, therefore

what pressures does the media face?

advertisers, owners and managers, government, other news sources

if a word or phrase has two or more meanings, it is said to be __________

ambiguous

a ___________ definition specifies the features a thing must have in order for the term being defined to apply to it

analytical

The truth part of evaluating an argument involves

analyzing whether the premises are true

Synonymous Definition

another word/phrase with the same meaning used to define

Operational Definition

appealing to/using process to explain term - experiment

an _________ presents a consideration for accepting a claim

argument

sound argument

argument valid and premises are true

Argument is a tool for resolving disputes and must have:

at least one claim/premise and one conclusion

"The dry cleaner on the corner is an eyesore." This is a subjective claim because it a. is a claim. b. depends on what you think an eyesore is. c. doesn't depend on what you think an eyesore is. d. depends on what the neighbors think.

b. depends what you think an eyesore is

" I believe Aristotle's argument because he is a renowned philosopher." This is an example of: a. logos b. ethos c. pathos

b. ethos

A statement can be: a. an argument. b. the conclusion of one argument and a premise in another. c. both a premise and an argument. d. a fundamental type of reasoning.

b. the conclusion of one argument and a premise in another.

background info

body of justified beliefs that consists of facts we learn from our own direct observations and facts we learn from others. Often confirmed by variety of sources.

Whether Moore is taller than Parker is: a. a subjective issue. b. a subjective claim. c. an objective issue. d. an objective claim.

c. an objective issue.

be wary of using language referring to certain groups categorized by ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation etc. if unnecessary or irrelevant because

can be perceived as a bias, or make info inaccurate

main characteristic of good ostensive/example definition

clarity

Premise Indicator

conclusionA word or phrase (e.g., "in light of the fact") that ordinarily indicates

where there is an unstated premise, you should use the _______ and ______ to clarify if the argument is deductive or inductive

content and context

which claim has initial plausibility and does not rely on bias, misinformation, or further evidence? a. all news from cable is controlled by advertisers b. the universe was created by the Big Bang c. all people from Asia are short d. certain species of turtles come to land to give birth

d. certain species of turtles come to land to give birth

a movie can be considered a (n) a. argument b. premise c. conclusion d. none of the above

d. none of the above

"Decaffeinated" means "without caffeine." term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?

decaffeinated, synonym

a (n) _______ is simply a question

issue

Steve Martin is my idea of a successful philosophy major term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?

successful philosophy major, example

The chicken is ready to eat. What type of ambiguity is this?

syntactic

______ ambiguity results when there is a structural problem in a claim

syntactic

purpose of good argumentative essay

take a position on an argument and support it with argument

A(n) ________ definition specifies the features that a thing must possess for the term being defined to apply to it.

Analytical

Who is considered to be the father of logic?

Aristotle

For a critical thinker, the biggest problem with rhetorical or persuasive definitions is that they A. are too subtle and complex. B. attempt to influence beliefs. C. are usually incomplete. D. do not sufficiently reduce vagueness.

B. attempt to influence beliefs.

Which of the following is the most general statement? A. That professor failed to give any constructive feedback on my paper. B. I've never before had such a disorganized and unhelpful professor. C. I've got a problem with that professor. D. That professor is very disorganized.

C. I've got a problem with that professor.

Counter-evidence

Claim that goes against conclusion

Chain Argument

Conclusion to one argument is a premise to another (sub conclusion)

A(n) ________ is a definition that points to, names, or describes something to which the defined term applies.

Definition by example

'Language' means something like French, German, Spanish, English, and so on. This example is an example of a(n) _______ definition.

Enumerative

Explanation vs. Argument

Explanation intended to provide info, argument intended to persuade based on evidence

Neurosis' means a chronic emotional disturbance that arises from suppressed or forgotten emotional stress (such as resentment, hostility, aggression, or guilt) experienced in early childhood. This is an example of a(n) ______ definition

Explanatory

"This warranty becomes void if the owner uses the hammer improperly." The part of this statement that is arguably vague is "warranty." True or False?

False

An "interested party" is a person who makes a claim that we have good reason to accept. Most often, the cause of such a person's credibility is his or her knowledge. True or False?

False

Credibility is an all or nothing proposition; a claim is either credible or it isn't. True or False?

False

Inductive arguments are evaluated with the terms "valid" and "invalid." True or False?

False

Precising definitions reduce ambiguity or vagueness by creating a new definition for a given term. True or False?

False

What makes a claim subjective is that it can't be supported by reasons. True or False?

False

conclusion

In an argument, the claim for which a premise is supposed to give a reason

Number claims and Diagram Argument: It's high time professional boxing was outlawed. Boxing almost always leads to brain damage, and anything that does that ought to be done away with. Besides, it supports organized crime

It's high time professional boxing was outlawed (1) . Boxing almost always leads to brain damage (2) , and anything that does that ought to be done away with (3) . Besides, it supports organized crime (4) 2+3 4 \ / 1

Not all claims are sentences, and not all sentences are claims, but sentences can express claims. Give example of each.

Just claim: 2 + 3 = 5 Just sentence: Are you hungry? Both: I am hungry

An 'electric currant' flows in a circuit if and only if an ammeter connected in series with the circuit shows a reading. This is an example of a(n) _______definition.

Operational

Claim

Single piece of info that is either true or false. Basic building block of critical thinking and logic.

Content Test for Argument

Tests the truth value of a well formed argument's premises

Premise

The claim or claims in an argument that provide the reasons for believing the conclusion

most likely the reason why advertisers, owners, and managers pressure the media?

The media is driven by the necessity to make a profit

Number claims and diagram argument: They really ought to build a new airport. It would attract more business to the area, not to mention the fact that the old airport is overcrowded and dangerous.

They really ought to build a new airport (1). It would attract more business to the area (2), not to mention the fact that the old airport is overcrowded (3) and dangerous (4). 2 3+4 \ / 1

How is news on social media sites biased and how does it affect observer?

Things sent to us are often tailored to our interests by website viewing history => echoing and reinforcing our interests, preferences and biases

Topic vs. Issue

Topic: Any subject of conversation - can't be true or false Issue: point of contention within topic - can be true or false

Ampliativity comes at the expense of certainty. True or False?

True

Identifying premises and conclusions is complicated by the fact that (a) conclusions are sometimes used as premises in another argument and (b) either may be unstated. True or False?

True

In an Inductive Argument, a strong, cogent argument can have a false conclusion. True or False?

True

In logic, an argument is a feud or conflict. True or false?

True

Objective claims can be true or false. : True or false?

True

Premises are absent in a piece of true rhetoric. True or False?

True

We judge deductive arguments in terms of validity and soundness, but we judge inductive ones in terms of strength or weakness. True or False?

True

Words such as "thus," "therefore," and "consequently" usually indicate that a conclusion is about to be offered. True or False?

True

simply being taller, speaking louder, and being more assertive can often make a person appear more credible. True or False?

True

A claims initial plausibility is assessed by: a. How well the claim fits with one's background information b. One's gut reaction to the claim c. The credibility of the person making the claim d. The first one or two arguments that are made in support of the claim

a. How well the claim fits with one's background information

"There is life on Mars" is an objective claim because a. only science can determine whether it is true or false. b. its truth or falsity cannot be known. c. whether it is true or false is independent of people thinking it is true or false. Correct d. it has been expressed in a declarative sentence—a sentence that is either true or false.

a. Whether it is true or false is independent of people thinking it is true or false

which of these would most likely affect your recollection of a doctor's appointment? a. fear of appointment b. reputation of hospital c. family's recommendations d. doctor's claims

a. fear of appointment

in which type of argument do the premises support the conclusion: a. inductive b. deductive c. sound d. invalid

a. inductive

An "issue" a. poses a question. b. can only be objective. c. can only be subjective. d. is the same as an opinion.

a. poses a question.

a belief is said to be propositional, which means it can be expressed in a(n) _______

declarative sentence

Soundness

deductive, valid argument is sound if it has all true premises

Enumerative Definition

defining by listing all individual members in the term

Subclass Definition

defining by listing types of things making up the term => can be opened or closed, list individuals or types

Ostensive/demonstrative definition

defining by pointing at/out examples of the term

We can consider sources objective if they are _________

disinterested parties

ethos ad

displays product being used/ endorsed by ppl we admire, identify with or feel we can trust. Goal is to make us remember product when shopping/ positive association

Logos ad

emphasize info about a product that advertisers hope favorably influence consumer's decision about buying product

rationality

evaluate our thinking to come to correct conclusions

"I was late to class because my car broke down." Does because indicate a premise or explanation?

explanation

claim

expressing belief, judgement, or opinion in declarative sentence

the less initial plausibility a claim has, the more __________ it seems. The less the claim fits with our background info, the more ___________ we should be.

extraordinary, suspicious

beyond a reasonable doubt is a type of deductive proof. True or false?

false

Secretaries make more money than physicians. What type of ambiguity is this?

grouping

moral subjectivism

idea that moral opinions are subjective

Cogency ( clear, logical, convincing)

inductive, strong argument is Cogent if it has all true premises

type of reasoning that compares alternative hypotheses to find the one with the best predictive accuracy. Compares evidence to find the most likely explanation

inference to the best explanation

pathos ad

intended to arouse emotions, and stimulate positive emotion when shopping or negative emotion to make us think poorly of something/someone

Independent Reasoning

it alone gives reason to believe conclusion, doesn't depend on other claims

Intention Definition (and types)

list of characteristics you need to qualify for definition Synonymous, Etymological, Operational, Analytic

Extension Definition (and types)

list of members that make up term Enumerative, Subclass, Ostensive/demonstrative -closed/complete extension - give a full list of members in definition - open/incomplete - give a few members of definition to give enough info - Empty - know the intention of term but there are no members that fit into definition

which type of rhetoric is least affect when trying to persuade an audience?

logos

The fewer hands that control the media, the easier it is for the news to be __________

managed

Dependent Reasoning

multiple claims needed to be put together to give reason to believe conclusion

Ampliativity

net gain in knowledge

premising definitions should be _________ in nature

neutral

In the sentence "Our nifty concrete lawn duck is no longer on the lawn," the part that makes it a subjective claim is the idea that the duck was

nifty

a claim lacks inherent credibility when it conflicts with ______

observer's background info

An argument consists of at least

one premise and one conclusion

reasonable opinion

one that agrees with most authoritative opinion but allows for enough open-mindedness to change if the evidence changes

a definition by example is also called a(n) __________ definition

ostensive

the reliability of our observations is no better than the reliability of _________

our memory

our most reliable source of information about the world/ most sought after is

our own observations

interested party

person who stands to gain from our belief in a claim (must be viewed w/ more suspicion)

A piano is a stringed instrument in which felt hammers are made to strike the strings by an arrangement of keys and levers. term being defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?

piano, analytical

Aaron saw Ben after his Bat Mitzvah. What type of ambiguity is this?

pronoun reference

a deductive argument __________ the conclusion

proves or demonstrates

"I wasn't driving recklessly. Please don't give me a ticket." Which term in claim could result in vagueness?

recklessly

The red planet is Mars. term defined? definition by example, analytical, or synonym?

red planet, synonym

Initial plausibility

rough assessments that we make of how credible claims seem based on our own background information

__________ ambiguity arises when a word or phrase has more than one meaning

semantic

An argument is ___________ if it is valid and all its premises are true.

sound

when true premises result in a true conclusion, the argument is valid and ________

sound

generality is lack of ______

specificity

Analytic Definition

specifying the features a thing must possess in order for the term being defined to apply to it defining something by asking 1. What type of thing is it/ what group does it belong to 2. How is it unique within that group

In this case the "defendant" will refer to Professor Plum. What kind of definition?

stipulative

Inductive structure and content test

strength and cogency

The more support the premise of an inductive argument provides for the conclusion, the _________ the argument.

stronger

the more support the premise of an inductive argument provides for the conclusion, the ________ the argument

stronger

Saying that Paris is the most beautiful city in the world is a ________ claim.

subjective

Structure Test for Argument

tests the relationship between premises and conclusion

Objective Dispute

the answer exists and has nothing to do with our opinion (facts)

Subjective Dispute

the answer is a matter of personal opinion or has no outside answer (opinions)

When considering credibility consider both ______ and ________

the claim, its source

Deductive Arguer's Intent

the conclusion is necessary given the premises

Inductive Arguer's Intent

the conclusion is reasonable/probable given the Premises

in a valid deductive argument, it is impossible for

the premise to be true and the conclusion to be false

the conclusion of the argument is also called the ______

thesis

critical thinking involves

thinking about thinking

what is the ultimate objective of thinking critically?

to make wise decisions

"Earth is larger in size than Jupiter". even though this statement is false, it is still an objective opinion. True or false?

true

rhetorical definitions are not truly definitions in that they do not provide agreed-upon meanings of words. true or false?

true

whether a subjective claim is true or false is dependent on whether people think it is true or false. true or false?

true

lexical definition

type of definition given in a dictionary that tells us universal agreed upon telling us what word ordinarily means

in a inductive argument, when the premises do not adequately support the conclusion the argument is ______

weak

reasons for doubting an argument? (3)

weak, irrelevant, invalid

The difference between "deductive reasoning" and "inductive reasoning" is that

with deductive reasoning, we try to demonstrate a conclusion; with inductive reasoning, we try to support a conclusion.

can balance of consideration arguments include both inductive and deductive reasoning?

yes