Ch. 12 MGT 131

The two-factor theory holds that motivators and hygiene factors relate to employee satisfaction. This relationship is more complex than the traditional view that...

employees are either satisfied or dissatisfied.

three process theories:

equity theory, goal-setting theory, and expectancy theory.

Process theories

explain how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted.

Content theories

explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior.

Individuals need to feel important and receive recognition from others. Promotions, awards, and feedback from the boss lead to...

feelings of self-confidence, prestige, and self-importance.

Goal-setting theory

focuses on how individuals go about setting goals and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation.

Equity theory

focuses on how motivation is affected by people's perception of how fairly they are being treated.

Intrinsic

fulfillment through carrying out an activity itself and helping others

In many cultures, compensation is based on...

group membership or group effort.

expectancy theory predicts that high performance followed by high rewards will lead to...

high satisfaction.

uncertainty avoidance and masculinity—best describe...

high-achieving societies

Achievement Motivation Theory

holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success, and to reach objectives.

The Herzberg two-factor theory of motivation holds that two sets of factors influence job satisfaction:

hygiene factors and motivators.

The objective of sociotechnical designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to...

increase overall productivity.

Nevis believes that the Maslow hierarchy reflects a culture that is Western-oriented and focused on the...

inner needs of individuals.

Process theories are more sophisticated and tend to focus on individual behavior in specific settings. Thus, they have less value to the study of employee motivation in...

international settings, although there has been some research in this area as well.

The determinants of motivation could be..

intrinsic or extrinsic...

Some organizational-behavior academics have criticized Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation beause

it classifies money as a hygiene factor.

The biggest drawback of equity theory is that...

it gives the impression being culture-bound

An assumption about motivation is that

it is universal in nature

Responses to the first question generally related to job content and included factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself. Herzberg called these...

job-content factors motivators

Note that like the upper-level needs in Maslow's hierarchy or like Herzberg's motivators, the need for achievement is...

learned.

the hygiene factors are environmental in nature and relate more to Maslow's...

lower-level needs.

Job design typically is a function of the work to be done and the way in which...

management wants it to be carried out.

In an organization, an individual may achieve self-actualization not so much through promotion but instead by...

mastering his or her environment and setting and achieving personal goals.

Organizations typically help personnel to satisfy these needs through safety programs and equipment, and by providing security through...

medical insurance, unemployment and retirement plans, and similar benefits.

There is considerable research to support the fundamental equity principle in Western work groups. However, when the theory is examined on an international basis, the results are...

mixed

Work centrality can be defined as the importance of work in an individual's life relative to his or her other areas of interest (family, church, leisure), provides important insights into how to....

motivate human resources in different cultures.

the expectancy theory seems culture-bound, and international managers must be aware of this limitation in their efforts to apply this theory to...

motivate human resources.

A need that is satisfied no longer serves as a

motivator.

Esteem needs are

needs for power and status.

Obviously, not all cultures function in this way: Asian cultures emphasize the...

needs of society.

In the context of work motivation, these physiological needs often are satisfied through...

the wages and salaries paid by the organization.

There is considerable research evidence showing that employees perform extremely well when they are assigned specific and challenging goals that...

they have had a hand in setting.

People in high-achieving societies are not afraid to take at least moderate risks or...

to live with ambiguity.

Simply put, motivation is universal, but its specific nature differs across cultures, so no one motivation theory can be...

universally applied across cultures.

the motivators are heavily psychological and relate to Maslow's...

upper-level needs

physiological needs are basic physical needs for...

water, food, clothing, and shelter.

The Assumption of Content and Process

work-motivation theories can be broken down into two general categories: content and process.

Quality of work life (QWL) is not ...

the same throughout the world.

The data from which the two-factor theory was developed were collected through a critical incident methodology that asked the respondents to answer two basic types of questions:

(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job? (2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job?

Researchers have discovered a number of ways to develop high-achievement needs in people. These involve teaching the individual to do the following:

(1) obtain feedback on performance and use this information to channel efforts into areas where success likely will be attained, (2) emulate people who have been successful achievers, (3) develop an internal desire for success and challenges, (4) daydream in positive terms by picturing oneself as successful in the pursuit of important objectives

Nevis suggested that a Chinese hierarchy (collectivist) of needs would have four levels....

(4) self-actualization in the service of society (3) safety (2) physiological (1) belonging (social)

Expectancy theory postulates that motivation is largely influenced by a multiplicative combination of a person's belief that...

(a) effort will lead to performance (b) performance will lead to specific outcomes (c) the outcomes will be of value to the individual.

Characteristic profile of high achievers:

- like situations in which they take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems. -want to win because of their own efforts not luck. -tend to be moderate risk takers rather than high or low risk takers. - want concrete feedback on their performance.

According to Tornvall, the approaches that should be avoided by international business partners to work together effectively are:

1. logical and reason-centered, individualistic thinking 2. viewing work as a necessary burden 3. the avoidance of risk taking and the feeling of distrust of others 4. the habit of analyzing things in such great depth that results in "paralysis through analysis" 5. an emphasis on control

Japanese organizational policies include:

1. money is rated as an important motivator 2. there is high masculinity index 3. there is high power distance index 4. uncertainty avoidance is strong, and security is strongly emplhasized.

the three content theories that have received the greatest amount of attention:

1. the hierarchy-of-needs theory 2. the two-factor motivation theory 3. the achievement motivation theory

In ascending order, beginning with the most basic need and going up to the highest, they are...

5. self-actualization 4. esteem 3. social 2. safety 1. physiological

Responses to the second question related to job context and included factors such as salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration. Herzberg called these...

Job-context variables hygiene factor

The Universalist Assumption

That all people are motivated to pursue goals they value—what the work-motivation theorists call goals with "high valence" or "preference." The process is universal; however, culture influences the specific content and goals that are pursued.

The Basic Motivation Process

Unsatisfied need ---> Drive toward goal to satisfy need

Some researchers have suggested that Maslow's hierarchy is too...

Western, and a more collectivist, Eastern perspective is necessary.

the value of goal-setting theory may well be determined...

by culture

High-achieving societies also tend to have moderate-to-high masculinity, as measured by the high importance they assign to the acquisition of money and other physical assets and the low value they give to...

caring for others and for the quality of work life.

Using financial incentives to motivate employees is common when companies try to associate..

compensation with performance

Most research in international human resource management has been content-oriented because these theories examine motivation in more general terms and are more useful in creating a...

composite picture of employee motivation in a particular country or region.

Maslow postulated that everyone has five basic needs that...

constitute a need hierarchy.

QWL is directly related to...

culture.

Safety needs are...

desires for security, stability, and the absence of pain.

Social needs are

desires to interact and affiliate with others and the need to feel wanted by others.

Motivation is a psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to

drives that are aimed at goals or incentives.

Another shortcoming of the achievement motivation theory is that the original theory does not satisfactorily explain the need for achievement in cultures in which individual accomplishment is...

neither valued nor rewarded

high achievers often tend to be loners, and...

not team players.

Job design consists of a job's content, the methods that are use on the job, and the way in which the job relates to...

other jobs in the organization.

This desire for "belongingness" often is satisfied on the job through social interaction within work groups in which...

people give and receive friendship.

Sociotechnical designs are job designs that blend...

personnel and technology.

Specific areas that are given attention in goal-setting theory include the level of participation in setting goals, goal difficulty, goal specificity, and the importance of objective, timely feedback to...

progress toward goals.

one shortcoming of the achievement motivation theory is that it relies almost solely on the projective personality Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure individual achievement, and a number of recent studies have

questioned the validity and reliability of this approach.

Self-actualization

reflect a desire to reach one's full potential, to become everything that one is capable of becoming as a human being.

Organizationally controlled factors (job-context factors, such as conditions, hours, earnings, security, benefits, and promotions) for the most part did not receive as high a ranking as internally mediated factors (job-content factors, such as...

responsibility, achievement, and the work itself).

Motivation is an important topic in international human resource management, especially so because many MNC managers tend to assume they can motivate their overseas personnel with the

same approaches that are used in the home country.

hygiene factors help prevent dissatisfaction (thus the term hygiene, as it is used in the health field), but only motivators lead to...

satisfaction.

Maslow's theory rests on a number of basic assumptions. One is that lower-level needs must be...

satisfied before higher-level needs can be achieved.

There are more ways to satisfy higher-level needs than there are ways to...

satisfy lower-level needs.

The Equity theory holds that if people perceive that they are being treated equitably, this perception will have a positive effect on their job performance and satisfaction, and there is no need to...

strive for equity.

It would seem that expectancy theory is best able to explain worker motivation in cultures where there is a...

strong internal locus of control

Maslow contended that an individual's drive to satisfy these physiological needs is greater than...

the drive to satisfy any other type of need.

Extrinsic

the external environment and result of the activity in the form of competition and compensation or incentive plans are of greater importance