Ch. 57 Species Interactions pt.2

Examples of antipredator strategies:

- A harmless butterfly species mimics a harmful one - The coloration of a caterpillar provides a warning that it is toxic. - A fish inflates itself to look larger

Endoparasites:

- Are more specialized than ectoparasites - Feed and reproduce only on certain host (Live inside the host's body)

Examples of top-down population control model:

- Cactus moth feeds on prickly pear cactus - Flea beetles feed on alligator weed

Displays of intimidation to deter predators:

- Cats arching their back - Porcupine fish inflating themselves - Lizards extending their collars

Examples of commensalism:

- Cattle egrets feeding on insects disturbed by cattle. - Orchids living as epiphytes on trees.

Ways that competition can be characterized:

- Exploitation or inference - Intraspecific or interspecific

Ways in which plants defend themselves against herbivores:

- Genetically controlled host plant resistance - Masting - Production of secondary metabolites

Why have many animals developed horns & antlers?

- Horns and antlers are used for sexual selection - Horns and antlers are to display dominance - Horns and antlers are used for defense against predators

Results from the overfishing of sharks:

- Increase in the main prey species of sharks, rays and skates. - Decrease in the main prey of rays and skates, bay scallops.

Examples of predator-controlled systems:

- Interactions between Canada lynx and snowshoe hare - Brown tree snakes introduced into Guam - Human whaling activities

Macroparasites:

- Live in the host but release juvenile stages outside the host's body. - Schistosomes -Short-lived with host subject to continual reinfection

Examples of systems that undergo oxidation to overcome plant resistance:

- Midgut of insects - Liver of mammals

Examples of parasitism:

- Mistletoe on trees - Tapeworm in dogs - Ticks on deer

Examples in which both bottom-up and top-down models control population density:

- Plant life is abundant, but mortality in herbivores is high - Plant life supports herbivores, but carnivores are not supported

Factors that may be used to distinguish fundamental and realized niches?

- Realized will probably be smaller than the fundamental - Realized is based on time and space, whereas fundamental is the potential distribution independent of time and space.

Ways in which a plant species can promote a pollinator's fidelity:

- Sequential flowering of different species through the year. - Synchronizing flowering within a species.

Mechanisms by which two competing species can coexist:

- Species occupy different niches - Resource partitioning occurs

Examples of cryptic coloration:

- Stick insects that mimic branches and twigs - Grasshoppers that blend in with the foliage on which they feed

True statements regarding fundamental and realized niches:

- The fundamental niche of a species is its potential niche - The realized niche of a species is the actual resource it uses

Knowledge gained from field studies of competition:

- The natural circumstances in which it is most important - How frequently competition occurs

Affects the outcome of competition:

- The presence of the same parasite in both species - Differences in the amount of sunlight received across seasons. - The temperature at which the competitors interact

A study by Connell revealed a general pattern of high competition among plants. Explanations for this observation:

- They are competing for the same set of limiting nutrients, such as water, light and minerals. - They are rooted in the ground and cannot escape easily.

Ways in which species may coexist:

- They may live in the same space but eat different types of food. - They may occupy different regions of a cliff face. - They may flower at different times, avoiding competition for pollinators

Acacia trees of Central America provide food and nesting sites for ants, and in return, the ants defend the trees by:

- Trimming away foliage from competing plants - Killing neighboring plant shoots - Fighting insects that feed on the trees

Types of mutualism:

- Trophic - Dispersive - Defensive

Microsparasites:

-Multiply within their hosts, sometimes within cells. - - Pathogenic bacteria - Strong and effective

Sympatric species:

-Occur in the same geographic area - Tend to specialize on food types

The outcome of competition may vary with changes in both biotic and _______ environments.

Abiotic

Why do animals tend to select food with high levels of nitrogen?

Animal tissue generally contains more nitrogen than plant tissue.

Interspecific exploitation:

Aphids and caterpillars compete for common resources

The tough exoskeleton of beetles that protects them from spiders' attacks is an example of:

Armor defense

_________ mimicry is the mimicry of an unpalatable species by a palatable one.

Batesian

Resemblance of the nonvenomous scarlet king snake to the venomous coral snake is an example of:

Batesian mimicry

Interspecific interference:

Beetle and caterpillar use physical intimidation

Interspecific:

Between individuals of different species

Intraspecific:

Between individuals of the same species

Hemiparasite: (its host range)

Broad range

How can herbivores overcome chemical plant defenses?

By detoxifying them

As a result of competition, the tendency of two species to diverge in morphology and thus resource use is called ______ _______.

Character displacement

________ is a species interaction in which one partner receives a benefit while the other is unaffected.

Commensalism

Holoparasite: (its host range)

Confined to a few host species

Herbivores can overcome plant defenses by detoxifying many poisons, mainly by two chemical pathways:

Conjugation and oxidation

_______ coloration is an aspect of camouflage, the blending of an organism with the background of its habitat.

Cryptic

______ mutualism occurs when an animal protects a plant or an herbivore.

Defensive

A mutualistic relationship in which one species receives food or shelter and in return provides defense to another species is called:

Defensive mutualism

The importance of predation on prey populations may be dependent on whether the system is _______ controlled or ________ controlled.

Donor; predator

Intraspecific exploitation:

Each caterpillar chews as much leaf as it can

Intraspecific interference:

Each caterpillar physically intimidates the other.

What type of competition occurs between lions and cheetahs that hunt gazelles on the African plains?

Exploitation competition

What type of competition describes indirect competition between organisms for a limited resource, with each obtaining as much as it can?

Exploitative

Donor-controlled:

Factors other than predation determine prey supply

True or false: Herbivory is typically lethal to plants.

False

True or false: The frequency of competition decreases as the number of species utilizing a resource decreases.

False

Generalist:

Feeds on many different plant species, usually mammals

Holoparasites:

Flowering plants that lack chlorophyll and are dependent on a host plant for water and minerals.

Batesian (example):

Harmless hoverflies; which are striped black and yellow to resemble unpalatable bees and wasps.

_______ are photosynthetic flowering plants that depend on hosts for water and mineral nutrients.

Hemiparasites

Is parasitism more like predation or herbivory?

Herbivory

Antipredator defenses that are used by some animals for fighting and sexual selection:

Horns and antlers

In ________ competition, strong individuals take the best resources, and weaker individuals either or survive under suboptimal conditions.

Interference

Beetles and caterpillars use physical intimidation to compete for the same food resources. What type of competition is this?

Interspecific competition

Do vertebrates or invertebrates have a greater impact on plant density?

Invertebrates have a greater impact

Ectoparasite:

Lives outside the host's body

What is the synchronous production of many progeny by all individuals in a population to satiate predators and thereby allow some progeny to survive?

Masting

A form of biological resemblance in which two or more unrelated poisonous species exhibit closely similar warning systems, such as the same pattern of bright colors or stripes is called:

Mullerian mimicry

Two or more toxic species that converge to look the same, thus reinforcing the distasteful design:

Mullerian mimicry

______ interactions are highly prevalent in plant seed-dispersal systems.

Mutualistic

Obligatory:

Neither species can live without the other

In _________ mutualism, neither species can live without the other, whereas in ________ mutualism, the interaction is beneficial, but not essential, to the survival and reproduction of either species.

Obligatory; facultative

Example of commensalism:

Orchids with flowers that look like female bees.

Tapeworms, lancet flukes, ticks, leeches, and mosquitoes are:

Parasites

Resource partitioning reflects:

Past competition, where the inferior competitor will eventually occupy a different niche

_______ is an example of commensalism, when one organism uses a second organism for transportation.

Phoresy

______ is the driving force for the evolution of chemical defenses, camouflage, and mimicry in prey.

Predation

Predator-controlled:

Predation influences prey supply

What does the top-down population control model suggest?

Predators control prey

Most predator-prey studies have found a large depression in prey density by predators. What can be concluded from these data?

Predators usually influence the abundance of prey in their environment.

Although ______ always kill their prey, the hosts of herbivores and _______ often survive their attacks.

Predators; parasites

The ability of plants to prevent herbivory via either chemical or mechanical defenses is also known as host plant ______.

Resistance

The term _______ _________ refers to the differentiation of niches, in both space and time, enabling similar species to coexist in a community.

Resource partioning

Specialist:

Restricted to one or two species of host plants; usually insects

Alkaloids, phenolics, and terpenoids are all _______ metabolites found in plants as defense mechanisms.

Secondary

Mullerian (example):

The black and yellow bands of several types of unpalatable bees and wasps.

Facultative:

The interaction is beneficial, but not essential to the survival and reproduction of either species

Allelopathy:

The secretion of chemicals from plant roots into the surrounding environment, killing the roots of surrounding plants.

______ mutualism occurs when two species receive benefit from utilizing a common resource.

Trophic

True or false: Abiotic factors can influence the outcome of biotic interactions.

True

True or false: Herbivory in aquatic systems is more extensive than in terrestrial ones.

True

True or false: according to the ecosystem exploitation hypothesis, both top-down and bottom-up models influence population density.

True

True or false: the most common lifestyle on Earth is probably parasitism.

True

What is phoresy?

When one organism uses a second organism for transportation.

The importance of predation on prey populations may be dependent on:

Whether the system is donor or predator controlled

As plant biomass increases and herbivores become ________ common, carnivores will become ______ abundant, which will decrease the population of herbivores.

more; more

Ecologists have found that in most studies about 75% of the prey population density is depressed by:

predators

Amensalism is an interaction:

that is detrimental to one species and neutral to another

A field study of competition in nature can examine:

the frequency and most important circumstances of competition.

Herbivores can often overcome plant defenses by detoxifying their toxic defense metabolites. Arrange the steps in this detoxification pathway in the proper order:

1. A mixed-function oxidase converts a secondary metabolite to its corresponding alcohol. 2. The oxidation product is conjugated to another molecule. 3. The inactive product of the pathway is excreted.

In a predator-controlled system, place the following events in order.

1. Increase in hare density 2. Increase in lynx density 3. Decrease in hare density 4. Decrease in lynx density

Order for bottom-up control and bottom-down control proposes. (Beginning with bottom-up control).

1. Increase plant quantity 2. Increase herbivore density 3. Decrease plant quantity and increase predator density 4. Decrease herbivores and increase plant quantity

Order of Connell's experiment from start to conclusion:

1. Rocks of Chthamalus species were transferred from the upper intertidal zone to the lower, and fastened down with screws 2. Semibalanus species were allowed to colonize the rocks 3. Semibalanus were removed from half of each rock 4. Rocks were returned to the lower tidal zone 5. The survival of Chthamalus was monitored on both sides of the rock