Ch. 8 Employee Behavior and Motivation

Hawthorne Effect

tendency for productivity to increase when workers believe they are receiving special attention from management

Telecommuting

form of flextime that allows people to perform some or all of a job away from standard office settings A rapidly growing number of U.S. workers do a significant portion of their work via telecommuting, performing some or all of a job away from standard office settings. Working from a home office outfitted with a PC, high-speed Internet, and a company intranet connection, telecommuters can keep abreast of everything going on at the office.

Forming Natural Work Groups

help employees see the importance of their jobs in the total structure of the firm People who do different jobs on the same projects are candidates for natural work groups. These groups are formed to help employees see the place and importance of their jobs in the total structure of the firm.

Job Enrichment

method of increasing job satisfaction by adding one or more motivating factors to job activities Job enrichment is designed to add one or more motivating factors to job activities. For example, job rotation programs expand growth opportunities by rotating employees through various positions in the same firm. Workers gain not only new skills but also broader overviews of their work and their organization.

Combining Tasks

involves enlarging jobs and increasing their variety to make employees feel that their work is more meaningful

Establishing Client Relationships

letting employees interact with customers This approach increases job variety. It gives workers both a greater sense of control and more feedback about performance than they get when their jobs are not highly interactive.

Four General Dimensions of Myers-Briggs

- Extraversion vs. Introversion - Sensing vs. Intuition - Thinking vs. Feeling - Judging vs. Perceiving Another interesting approach to understanding personalities in organizations is the Myers-Briggs framework. This framework, based on the classical work of Carl Jung, differentiates people in terms of four general dimensions: Extraversion (E) Versus Introversion (I). Extraverts get their energy from being around other people, whereas introverts are worn out by others and need solitude to recharge their energy. Sensing (S) Versus Intuition (N). The sensing type prefers concrete things, whereas intuitives prefer abstract concepts. Thinking (T) Versus Feeling (F). Thinking individuals base their decisions more on logic and reason, whereas feeling individuals base their decisions more on feelings and emotions. Judging (J) Versus Perceiving (P). People who are the judging type enjoy completion or being finished, whereas perceiving types enjoy the process and open-ended situations.

Authoritarianism

the extent to which a person believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations

Cognitive Dissonance

when two sets of cognitions or perceptions are contradictory or incongruent a person experiences a level of conflict and anxiety called cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance also occurs when people behave in a fashion that is inconsistent.

Counterproductive Behaviors

Absenteeism - when an employee does not show up for work. Turnover - annual percentage of an organization's workforce that leaves and must be replaced. Theft Sabotage Sexual Harassment Workplace Violence

Big Five Personality traits

Agreeableness - a person's ability to get along with others conscientiousness - a reflection of the number of things a person tries to accomplish. Conscientiousness in this context refers to the individual's persistence, dependableness, and orderliness. Highly conscientious people tend to focus on relatively few tasks at one time; as a result, they are likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, and self-disciplined. Emotionality- the degree to which people tend to be positive or negative in their outlook and behaviors toward others Emotionality refers to the degree to which people tend to be positive or negative in their outlook and behaviors toward others. People with positive emotionality are relatively poised, calm, resilient, and secure; people with negative emotionality are more excitable, insecure, reactive, and subject to mood swings. Extraversion - a person's comfort level with relationships Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships. Introverts are much less sociable, talkative, and assertive, and more reluctant to begin new relationships. Openness - reflects how open or rigid a person is in terms of his or her beliefs People with high levels of openness are curious and willing to listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs, and attitudes in response to new information. People with low levels of openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas and less willing to change their minds.

Social skills

a person's ability to get along with others and to establish positive relationships

Motivating oneself

a person's ability to remain optimistic and to continue striving in the face of setbacks, barriers, and failure

Empathy

a person's ability to understand how others are feeling even without being explicitly told

Self-Efficacy

a person's belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task

Attitudes

a person's beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or people Attitudes are important because they are the mechanism through which we express our feelings.

Managing emotions

a person's capacities to balance anxiety, fear, and anger so that they do not overly interfere with getting things accomplished

Self-awareness

a person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling In general, more self-awareness allows people to more effectively guide their own lives and behaviors.

Affect

a person's feelings toward something . In many ways, affect is similar to emotion; it is something over which we have little or no conscious control.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

a popular questionnaire that some organizations use to assess personality types

Organizational Commitment

an individual's identification with the organization and its mission

DisAdvantages of Modified Schedules and Alternative Workplaces

challenging to coordinate and manage poor fit for some workers lack of network and coworker contact lack of management belief

Job Satisfaction

degree of enjoyment that people derive from performing their jobs

Work Sharing (Job Sharing)

method of increasing job satisfaction by allowing two or more people to share a single full-time job Job sharing usually benefits both employees and employers. Employees, for instance, tend to appreciate the organization's attention to their personal needs. At the same time, the company can reduce turnover and save on the cost of benefits.

Flextime Programs

method of increasing job satisfaction by allowing workers to adjust work schedules on a daily or weekly basis Flextime programs allow people to choose their working hours by adjusting a standard work schedule on a daily or weekly basis. There are limits to flextime.

Job Redesign

method of increasing job satisfaction by designing a more satisfactory fit between workers and their jobs Job redesign acknowledges that different people want different things from their jobs. By restructuring work to achieve a more satisfactory fit between workers and their jobs, job redesign can motivate individuals with strong needs for career growth or achievement. Job redesign is usually implemented in one of three ways: through combining tasks, forming natural work groups, or establishing client relationships.

Participative Management and Empowerment

method of increasing job satisfaction by giving employees a voice in the management of their jobs and the company In participative management and empowerment, employees are given a voice in how they do their jobs and in how the company is managed; they become empowered to take greater responsibility for their own performance. Not surprisingly, participation and empowerment often makes employees feel more committed to organizational goals they have helped to shape.

Advantages of Modified Schedules and Alternative Workplaces

more satisfied, committed employees reduced stress improved productivity less congestion

Intention

part of an attitude that guides a person's behavior If you like your instructor, you may intend to take another class from him or her next semester. Intentions are not always translated into actual behavior, however.

Organizational Citizenship

positive behaviors that do not directly contribute to the bottom line

Positive Reinforcement

reward that follows desired behaviors Positive reinforcement is used when a company or manager provides a reward when employees exhibit desired behaviors, such as working hard, helping others, and so forth. When rewards are tied directly to performance, they serve as positive reinforcement.

Psychological Contract

set of expectations held by an employee concerning what he or she will contribute to an organization (referred to as contributions) and what the organization will in return provide the employee (referred to as inducements) A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations held by employees and the organization regarding what employees will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. Unlike a business contract, a psychological contract is not written on paper, nor are all of its terms explicitly negotiated.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

set of procedures involving both managers and subordinates in setting goals and evaluating progress Performance goals are also commonly used to direct and motivate behavior. The most frequent method for setting performance goals is called management by objectives (MBO), which is a system of collaborative goal setting that extends from the top of an organization to the bottom.

Risk Propensity

the degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions A manager with a high risk propensity, for example, might experiment with new ideas and gamble on new products. Such a manager might also lead the organization in new and different directions.

Self-Esteem

the extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual A person with high self-esteem is more likely to seek higher-status jobs, be more confident in his or her ability to achieve higher levels of performance, and derive greater intrinsic satisfaction from his or her accomplishments.

Person-Job Fit

the extent to which a person's contributions and the organization's inducements match one another

Emotional Intelligence (Emotional Quotient, EQ)

the extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills Emotional intelligence, or emotional quotient (EQ), refers to the extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills.

Locus of Control

the extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them

Cognition

the knowledge a person presumes to have about something . You may believe you like a class because the textbook is excellent, the class meets at your favorite time, the instructor is outstanding, and the workload is light. This "knowledge" may be true, partially true, or totally false.

Employee Behavior

the pattern of actions by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences the organization's effectiveness

Personality

the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another

Motivation

the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways One worker may be motivated to work hard to produce as much as possible, whereas another may be motivated to do just enough to survive. Managers must understand these differences in behavior and the reasons for them.

Performance Behaviors

the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects employees to display

Classical Theory of Motivation

theory holding that workers are motivated solely by money According to the classical theory of motivation, workers are motivated solely by money. In his 1911 book, The Principles of Scientific Management, industrial engineer Frederick Taylor proposed a way for both companies and workers to benefit from this widely accepted view of life in the workplace. If workers are motivated by money, Taylor reasoned, paying them more should prompt them to produce more.

Hierarchy of Human Needs Model

theory of motivation describing five levels of human needs and arguing that basic needs must be fulfilled before people work to satisfy higher-level needs self-actualization needs esteem needs social needs security needs physiological needs

Two-Factor Theory

theory of motivation holding that job satisfaction depends on two factors, hygiene and motivation According to Herzberg's two-factor theory, hygiene factors affect motivation and satisfaction only if they are absent or fail to meet expectations. For example, workers will be dissatisfied if they believe they have poor working conditions. If working conditions are improved, however, they will not necessarily become satisfied; they will simply not be dissatisfied. If workers receive no recognition for successful work, they may be neither dissatisfied nor satisfied. If recognition is provided, they will likely become more satisfied.

Expectancy Theory

theory of motivation holding that people are motivated to work toward rewards that they want and that they believe they have a reasonable chance of obtaining A reward that seems out of reach is likely to be undesirable even if it is intrinsically positive.

Theory Y

theory of motivation holding that people are naturally energetic, growth-oriented, self-motivated, and interested in being productive

Theory X

theory of motivation holding that people are naturally lazy and uncooperative

Equity Theory

theory of motivation holding that people evaluate their treatment by the organization relative to the treatment of others Equity theory focuses on social comparisons, people evaluating their treatment by the organization relative to the treatment of others. This approach holds that people begin by analyzing inputs (what they contribute to their jobs in terms of time, effort, education, experience) relative to outputs (what they receive in return—salary, benefits, recognition, security). This comparison is similar to the psychological contract.

Punishment

unpleasant consequences of an undesirable behavior Punishment is designed to change behavior by presenting people with unpleasant consequences if they exhibit undesired behaviors. Employees who are repeatedly late for work, for example, may be suspended or have their pay docked.

Machiavellianism

used to describe behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others