Chapter 1: Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method

Qualitative Research

Studies based on non-numerical data. E.g., studying the play behavior of badgers and interpreting observations of their play in a narrative report.

Quantitative Research

Studies based on numerical data. E.g., studying the play behavior of badgers and comparing how much time they engage in solitary play versus social play.

Science is:

- Objective - Falsifiable - Replicable

Nonscientific Methods of Knowing

- Tenacity - Intuition - Authority - Rationalism - Empiricism

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe a phenomenon 2. Develop hypothesis 3. Make prediction 4. Evaluate prediction 5. Address hypothesis

Science

A body of knowledge, a field, or a verifiable approach to studying phenomena.

Variable

A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals. It's a factor that is measured. E.g., adrenaline, aggression, apathy, attitude, attraction, relaxation, pain tolerance, etc.

Authority

A method of acquiring knowledge in which a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area. "Experts" can be doctors, deities, books, the internet, etc. E.g., knowing you don't have high cholesterol because a doctor said so. (T) E.g., knowing the earth is 6000yrs old because the Bible said so. (F)

Tenacity

A method of acquiring knowledge in which information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. The more you are exposed to an idea, the more we tend to believe it; it's a habit to pass on such ideas. E.g., knowing that birds of a feather flock together because everyone knows that. (T) E.g., knowing that vitamin C cures the common cold because it always cured it in the past. (F)

Intuition

A method of acquiring knowledge in which information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling". An idea believed to be true because it feels right. E.g., knowing you want spaghetti for dinner because the idea makes you happy. (T) E.g., knowing it's more likely to rain after you wash your car because it seems to be the case. (F)

Rationalism

A method of acquiring knowledge that involves seeking answers by the use of logical reasoning. It's an important part of science though by itself it's and unscientific method of knowing. E.g., knowing to open a door by pushing it because you tried pulling it without success. (T) E.g., knowing that the sun revolves around the Earth because that explains night and day. (F)

Empiricism

A method of acquiring knowledge through observation or direct sensory experience. E.g., knowing it's daytime by looking outside. But you can't always trust your senses, e.g., the vertical line on the Powerpoint seems longer than the horizontal line but it is not.

Pseudoscience

A set of ideas based on nonscientific theory, faith, and belief. E.g., palm reading, astrology, crystal therapy, recovered-memory therapy, conversion therapy, the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, etc.

Hypothesis

A tentative description or explanation for the relationship between variables.

Deduction (Deductive Reasoning)

Drawing a conclusion based on general facts. E.g., all green apples are sour. Therefore, if I eat a green apple it will be sour.

Develop Hypothesis

E.g., relaxation increases pain tolerance because it diverts attention away from the pain stimulus.

Make Prediction

E.g., relaxed participants will report less pain than tense participants taking a cold pressor test.

Evaluate Prediction

E.g., you conduct and experiment with the cold pressor test.

Observe Phenomenon

E.g., you see someone meditate who doesn't seem notice that a fly is biting her.

Deductive Reasoning Example

Ferns are plants. All plants perform photosynthesis. Therefore, ferns perform photosynthesis.

Deductive Reasoning Example

Hamsters have an excellent sense of smell. Fluffy is a hamster. Therefore, Fluffy has an excellent sense of smell.

Induction (Inductive Reasoning)

Making a generalization based on specific cases. E.g., I ate 3 green apples and all were sour. Therefore, all green apples are sour.

Address Hypothesis

That is, you support, refute, or refine the hypothesis. E.g., if relaxed participants demonstrate higher pain tolerance, you support the hypothesis.

Rationalism Example

You and your friend were too short to ride the rollercoaster last year. This year she rode it. You are taller than her so you know you can ride it this year.

Inductive Reasoning Example

You ate shellfish a few times. Each time, your throat swelled and you broke out in hives. Therefore, you are allergic to shellfish.

Tenacity Example

You believe your test performance is influenced by whether you wear your lucky shirt.

Authority Example

You find the address to a restaurant by googling it.

Inductive Reasoning Example

You observed many cats. Each one purred. Therefore, all cats purr.

Empiricism Example

You replace rice with pasta in a dish to see what happens to the taste.