Chapter 1: The Sociological View

4. Essay - How do you think variations in social solidarity might affect other areas in social life, such as criminal behavior and political protest?

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1. Essay - Which of the benefits from developing a sociological perspective are most personally important to you and why?

??? Interactionist: View of Society - Active in influencing and affecting everyday social interaction. View of the Individual - People manipulate symbols and create their social worlds through interaction. View of the Social Order - Maintained by shared understanding of everyday behavior. View of Social Change - Reflected in people's social positions and their communications with others. Example - People respect laws or disobey them based on their own past experience.

Describe the contribution of Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber to the birth of sociology as a social science and a way of combining social ills.

Comte - He believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve French society. He coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behavior. He hoped this would eventually lead to more rational human interactions. Spencer - He did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; instead, he merely hoped to understand it better. He applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change, or evolve, over time. His approach was extremely popular in his time. Spencer suggested that since societies are bound to change eventually, one need not be highly critical of present social arrangements or work actively for social change. Durkheim - He insisted that behavior must be understood within a larger social context, not just in individualistic terms. He developed a fundamental thesis to help understand all forms of society. He focused on the functions that religion performs and underscored the role that group life plays in defining what we consider to be religious. Weber - He taught his students they should employ Verstehen, the German word for "understanding" or "insight," in their intellectual work. We cannot analyze much of our social behavior by the same criteria we use to measure weight or temperature. To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions--how they themselves view and explain their behavior. We also credit Weber for a key conceptual tool: the ideal type. An ideal type is a construct, a made-up model that serves as a measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated. Marx - He shared a dual interest in abstract philosophical issues and the concrete reality of everyday life. Society was fundamentally divided between classes that clash in pursuit of their own class interests in Marx's analysis. He believed that an entire system of economic, social, and political relationships maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers. He emphasized the group identifications and associations that influence an individual's place in society. Sociology - The scientific study of social behavior and human groups. Social Science - The study of various aspects of human society.

Describe how Charles Horton Cooley, Robert Merton, and Pierre Bourdieu contributed to sociology.

Cooley - He preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units--intimate, face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friendship networks. He saw these groups as the seedbeds of society, in the sense that they shape people's ideals, beliefs, values, and social nature. Merton - He made an important contribution to the field by successfully combining theory and research. Merton produced a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior. He noted different ways in which people attempt to achieve success in life. In his view, some may deviate from the socially agreed-upon goal of accumulating material goods or the socially accepted means of achieving that goal. He also emphasized that sociologists should strive to bring together the "macro-level" and "micro-level" approaches to studying society. Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. Microsociology concentrates on small groups, often through experimental means. Micro-level investigations are particularly useful to sociologists who study everyday forms of social interaction, such as routine encounters on the job and in public places. Bourdieu - He wrote about how capital in its many forms sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next. Capital included not just material goods, but cultural and social assets. Cultural capital refers to non economic goods such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of languages and the arts. In comparison, social capital refers to the collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. Much has been written about the importance of family and friendship networks in providing people with an opportunity to advance. In his emphasis on cultural and social capital, Bourdieu's work extends the insights of early social thinkers.

Identify and describe the five stages of the research cycle.

Define the Problem - The first step in any research project is to state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. Early on, any social science researcher must develop an operational definition of each concept being studied. An operational definition is an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept. Reviewing the Literature - By conducting a review of the literature-the relevant scholarly studies and information-researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes. Formulating the Hypothesis - After reviewing earlier research and drawing on the conclusions of sociological theorists, the researchers may then formulate the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables. We can define a variable as a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. Researchers who formulate a hypothesis generally must suggest how one aspect of human behavior influences or affects another. The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called the independent variable. The second variable is termed the dependent variable because its action "depends" on the influence of the independent variable. Identifying independent and dependent variables is a critical step in clarifying cause-and-effect relationships. Causal logic involves the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other. A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other. Correlations are an indication that causality may be present; they do not necessarily indicate causation. Sociologists seek to identify the causal link between variables; the suspected causal link is generally described in the hypothesis. Collect and Analyze Data - You need to collect information, using one of the research designs. The research design guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing data. In most studies, social scientists must carefully select what is know as a sample. A sample is a selection from a large population that is statistically representative of that population. There are many kinds of samples, but the one social scientist use more frequently is the random sample. In a random sample, every member of an entire population being studied has the same change of being selected. The scientific method requires that research results be both valid and reliable. Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. A valid measure of income depends on the gathering of accurate data. Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results. One problem of reliability is that some people may not discles accurate information. Developing the Conclusion - The conclusion of a research study represents both an end and a beginning. Although it terminates a specific phase of the investigation, it should also generate ideas for future study. Sociological studies do not always generate data that supports the original hypothesis. In many instances, a hypothesis is refuted, and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. Unexpected results may also lead sociologists to reexamine their methodology and make change sin the research design. A control variable is a factor held constant to test the relative impact of the independent variable.

3. Essay - How do social contexts affect the probability that different types of suicide will occur?

Durkheim developed a highly original theory about the relationship between suicide and social factors. He focused on such problems as the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious, social, and occupational groups. He found that Protestants had much higher suicide rates that Catholics; the unmarried had much higher rates than the married people; soldiers were more likely to take their lives than civilians. There seemed to be higher rates of suicide in times of peace that in times of war and revolution, and in times of economic instability and recession rather than in times of prosperity. He concluded that the suicide rate of a society reflected the extent to which people were or were not integrated into the group life of society.

Contrast the perspectives of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and George Herbert Mead in the context of their respective contributions to functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism - Think of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. It emphasizes the way that the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. Conflict Theory - Social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources. Symbolic Interactionism - Generalize everyday forms of social interaction in order to understand society as a whole.

Identify the major sociological theoretical traditions, their central features, and key exemplars.

Functionalist Perspective - Also referred to as the structural functionalist approach, the functionalist perspective emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. In examining any aspect of society, then, functionalists emphasize the contribution that it makes to overall social stability. Talcott Parsons was a key figure in the development of the functionalist theory. Parsons had been greatly influenced by the work of Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and other European sociologists. For over four decades, Parsons dominated sociology in the United States with his advocacy of functionalism. He saw any society as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. According to the functionalist approach, is an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society;s stability or survival--if it does not serve some identifiable useful function or promote value consensus among member of a society--it will not be passed on from one generation to the next. Functionalists acknowledge that not all parts of a society contribute to its stability all the time. A dysfunction refers to an element or process of a society that may actually disrupt the social system or reduce its stability. The evaluation of a dysfunction depends on one's own values, or as the saying goes, on "where you sit." Robert Merton made an important distinction between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions of institutions are open, stated, conscious functions. They involve the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of society. By contrast, latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution. Conflict Perspective - Conflict sociologists see the social world in continual struggle. Proponents of the conflict perspective assume that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation. Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religions groups for members, or disputes over the federal budget. Proponents of the conflict approach have become increasingly persuasive since the late 1960s. Our social world is characterized by continual struggle between competing groups, Currently, sociologists accept conflict theory as one valid way to gain insight into a society. Karl Marx viewed the struggle between social classes as inevitable, give the exploitation of workers under capitalism. Expanding on Marx's work, sociologists and other social scientists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all societies. In studying any culture, organization, or social group, sociologists want to know who benefits who suffers, and who dominates at the expense of others. Their emphasis on social change and the redistribution of resources makes conflict theorists more "radical" and "activist" than functionalists. Feminist Perspective - Sociologists began embracing the feminist perspective in the 1970s, although it has a long tradition in many other disciplines. Proponents of the feminist perspective view inquiry based on gender as central to all behavior and organization. Because this perspective focuses on one aspect of inequality, it is often allied with the conflict perspective. Those who hold to the feminist perspective tend to focus on the relationships of everyday life, just as interactionists would. Drawing on the work of Marx and Engels, many contemporary feminist theorists view women's subordination as inherent in capitalist societies. Some radical feminist theories, however, view the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies, whether capitalist, socialist, or communist. An early example of this perspective can be seen in the life and writings of Ida Wells-Barnett. Interactionist Perspective - Proponents of the interactionist perspective generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to understand society as a whole. In studying the social order, interationsists are especially interested in shared understandings of everyday behavior. Interactionism developed first in the US. George Herbert Mead is widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective. Mead was interested in observing the most minute forms of communication and in understanding how such individual behavior was influenced by the larger context of a group or society. Interactionism is a sociological framework in which human beings are seen to be living in a world of meaningful objects. These "objects" may include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symboles. The interactionist perspective is sometimes referred to as the symbolic interactionist perspective, because interactionist see symbokes as an especially important part of human communication. Different cultures may use different symbols to convey the same idea. These symbolic interactions are classified as a form of nonverbal communication, which can include many other gestures, facial expressions, and postures.

Discuss the contribution of W.E.B Du Bois to conflict theory and the study of race in the United States.

He conducted research that he hoped would assist in the struggle for a racially egalitarian society. He believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice. He saw the importance of religion to society. However, he tended to focus on religion at the community level and the role of the church in the lives of its members. He coined the term double consciousness to refer to the division of an individual's identity into 2 or more social realities. He used the term to describe the experience of being Black in White America.

Describe the contribution of Ida Wells-Barnett, Harriet Martineau, Jane Addams, and feminist theory to sociology largely ignored by other pioneers of sociology.

Jane Addams - Early female sociologists often took active roles in poor urban areas as leaders of community centers known as settlement houses. Jane Addams was a member of the American Sociological Society and co founded the famous Chicago settlement, Hull House. Addams and other pioneering female sociologists commonly combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism--all with the goal of assisting the underprivileged and creating a more egalitarian society. For example, working with the Black journalist and educator Ida Wells-Barnett, Addams successfully prevented racial segregation in the Chicago public schools. Addams' efforts to establish a juvenile court system and a women's trade union also reveal the practical focus of her work. By the middle of the 20th century, sociologists for the most part restricted themselves to theorizing and gathering information; the aim of transforming society was left to social workers and others. This shift away from social reform was accompanied by a growing commitment to scientific methods of research and to value-free interpretation of data. Not all sociologists were happy with this emphasis. A new organization, the Society for the Study of Social Problems, was created in 1950 to deal more directly with social inequality and other social ills. Harriet Martineau - Scholars learned of Comte's worked largely through translations by the English sociologists Martineau. As a sociologist, Martineau was a pathbreaker in her own right. She offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and the United States. Martineau's book Society in American examines religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in the young nation. This groundbreaking book gives special attention to social class distinctions and to such factors as gender and race. Martineau also wrote the first book on sociological methods. Martineau's writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, health, and population could have on social problems. She spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves, and religious tolerance. Later in life, deafness did not keep her from being an activist. In Martineau's view, intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society. That is why Martineau conducted research on the nature of female employment and pointed to the need for further investigation of the issue. Ida Wells-Barnett - An early example of the feminist perspective can be seen in the life and writings of Wells-Barnett. Following her groundbreaking publications in the 1890s on the practice of lynching Black Americans, she became an advocate in the women's rights campaign, especially the struggle to win the vote for women. Wells-Barnett used her analysis of society as a means of resisting oppression. She researched what it meant to be African Americans, a women in the United States, and a Black woman in the United States. Feminist Theory - View inequity based on gender as central to all behaviors and organization.

Describe the main methods of collecting sociological data. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation, experiments, surveys, and the analysis of existing documents in terms of the methodological issues.

Surveys - A survey is a study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act. In preparing to conduct a survey, sociologists must not only develop a representative sample; they must exercise great care in the wording of questions. An effective survey question must be simple and clear enough for people to understand it. It must also be specific enough so that there are no problems interpreting the results. There are two main forms of the survey: the interview, in which a researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning, and the questionnaire, a printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent. Each of theses has its own advantages. An interviewer can obtain a high response rate, because people find it more difficult to turn down a personal request for an interview that to throw away a written questionnaire. In addition, a skilled interviewer can go beyond written questions and probe for a subject's underlying feeling and reasons. On the other hand, questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper, especially in large samples. Surveys are an example of quantitative research, in which scientists collect and report data primarily in numerical form. While this type of research is appropriate for large samples, it doesn't offer great depth and detail on a topic. That is why researchers also make use of qualitative research, which relies on what scientists see in field and naturalistic settings. It focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups or whole nations. Ex. questionnaires, interviews Advantages: yields information about specific issues Disadvantages: can be expensive and time-consuming Ethnography - Investigators often collect information or test hypotheses through firsthand studies. Ethnography is the study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork. Observation, or direct participation in closely watching a group or organization, is the basic technique of ethnography. However, ethnographic research also includes the collection of historical information and the conduct of in-person interviews. Although ethnography may seem a relatively informal method compared to surveys or experiment, ethnographic researchers are careful to take detailed notes while observing their subjects. In some cases, the sociologists actually joins a group for a period, to get an accurate sense of how it operates. This approach is called participant observation. One challenge that the investigator and every participant observer may encounter is a reluctance to gain acceptance into an unfamiliar group. Ethnographic research poses other challenges for the investigator. Sociologists must be able to fully understand what they are observing. In a sense, then, researchers must learn to see the world as the group sees is in order to fully comprehend the events taking place around them. Ex. observation Advantages: yields detailed information about specific groups or organizations Disadvantages: involves months if not years of labor-intensive data gathering Experiments - When sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may conduct experiments. An experiment is an artificially creating situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables. In the classic method of conducting an experiment, two groups of people are selected and matched fro similar characteristics, such as age or education. The researchers then assign ones of the groups to be experimental group and the other to be the control group. The experimental group is exposed to an independent variable; the control group is not. In some experiments, just as in ethnographic research, the presence of a social scientists or other observer may affect the behavior of the people being studied. Sociologists have used the term Hawthorne effect to refer to the unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects of research, who deviate from their typical behavior because they realize they are under observation. Ex. deliberate manipulation of people's social behavior Advantages: yields direct measures of people's behavior Disadvantages: ethical limitations on the degree to which subjects' behavior can be manipulated Use of Existing Sources - Sociologists do not necessarily need to collect new data in order to conduct research and test hypotheses. The term secondary analysis refers to a variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data. Generally, in conducting secondary analysis, researchers utilize data in ways unintended by the initial collectors of information. Sociologists consider secondary analysis to be nonreactive, since it does not influence people's behavior. Researchers, then, can avoid the Hawthorne effect. Many social scientists find it useful to study cultural, economic, and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio, and television tapes, the Internet, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore, and legal papers. In examining these sources, researchers employ a technique known as content analysis, which is the systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale. Content analysis can be revealing. Ex. analysis of census or health data, analysis of films or TV commercials Advantage: cost-efficient Disadvantages - limited to data collect for some other purpose

Explain what C. Wright Mills referred to as the sociological imagination and its origins in relation to the three modern revolutions.

The awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past, allows all of us to comprehend the links between our immediate, personal social settings, and the remote, impersonal social world that surrounds us and helps to shape us. A key element is the ability to view one's own society as an outsider would, rather than only from perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. Sociologists need to go beyond one culture to place a certain practice in perspective. The sociological imagination allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to understand broader public issues. It is an empowering tool, it allows us to look beyond a limited understanding of things to see the world and its people in a new way and through a broader lens than wer might otherwise use. Sociological Imagination - An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past.

2. Essay - What is the sociological imagination? How can it help an individual cope with difficulties in life experiences?

The sociological imagination is an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society. It allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observation to understand broader public issues. Divorce, for example, is unquestionably a personal hardship for a husband and wife. However, divorce is not simply the personal problem of a particular man or woman but rather, a societal concern. Therefore, an increase in the divorce rate serves to redefine a major social institution, the family. Through the complexities of the blended family, this private concern becomes a public issue that affects schools, government agencies, businesses, and religious institutions.