Chapter 10 study guide

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

By the late 1760s, a new generation of philosophies had come to maturity. Most famous was jean-Jacques Rousseau. The young Rousseau wandered through France and Italy holding various jobs. Eventually he made his way to Paris, where he was introduced into the circle of the philosophies. He did not like city life, however, and often withdrew into long periods of solitude. He did not necessarily practice what he preached. his own children died at a young age. He also viewed women as being " naturally'' different from men" . He believed that emotions, as well as reason were important to human development. He sought a balance between heart and mind, between emotions and reason. A French man who believed that Human beings are naturally good & free & can rely on their instincts. Government should exist to protect common good, and be a democracy."Social Contract" he explained an ideal society where each community member would vote on issues and the majority would become one law.

Montesquieu

Charles- Louis de secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu, came from the French nobility. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws,, was published in 1748. In his study of government, Montesquieu tried to use the scientific method to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationship of human beings. He identified three basic kinds of government ! republic, suitable for small states; 2 despotism, appropriate for large states; and 3 monarchies, ideal for moderate- size states. He used England as an example of a monarchy. French political philosopher who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers.

René Descartes

Descartes began by thinking and writing about the doubt and uncertainly that seemed to be everywhere in the confusion of the seventeenth century. He ended with a philosophy that dominated Western thought until the twentieth century. The starting point for Descartes new system was doubt. He decided to set aside all that he had learned and to begin again. He emphasized the importance of his own mid and asserted that he would accept only those things that his reason said were true. He ideas that mind and matter were completely separate allowed scientist to view matter as dead or inert as something that was totally detached from themselves and that could be investigated independently by reason.17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completely separate; known as father of modern rationalism.French philosopher and mathematician who proposed the need to search for provable knowledge.

Treaty of Paris in 1763

Ended French and Indian War, France lost Canada, land east of the Mississippi, to British, New Orleans and west of Mississippi to Spain. Ended the French and Indian War and effectively kicked the French out of North America.

George Frederick Handel

Handel was a German who spent much of his career in England. He is probably best known for his religious music. Handel's Messiah had been called a rare work that appeals immediately to everyone and yet is a masterpiece of the highest order. German composer, profoundly secular, wrote operas and for public audiences, most known for religious music (baroque).One of the most famous "English" opera composers was this German immigrant to England.

Isaac Newton's universal law of gravitation

He became a professor of mathematics at the university and wrote his major work, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy. Newton defined the three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies, as well as objects on Earth. Crucial to his whole argument was the universal law of gravitation. This law explains why the planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines but instead continue in elliptical orbits about the Sun. The law states, in mathematical terms, that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

John Locke

The Enlightenment was especially influenced by the ideas of two seventeenth- century Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke. His theory of knowledge also greatly affected eighteenth- century intellectuals. In his essay concerning Human Understanding. Locke argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, or blank mind. Locke's ideas suggested that people were molded by the experience that came through their senses from the surrounding world. 17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights.English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property.

Voltaire

The greatest figure of the Enlightenment was Francois Marie Arouet, known simply as Voltaire. It came form a prosperous middle class family. He wrote an almost endless stream of pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and histories, which brought him both fame and wealth. Voltaire was especially well known for his criticism of Christianity and his strong belief in religious toleration. He fought against religious intolerance in France. French philosopher and writer whose works epitomize the Age of Enlightenment, often attacking injustice and intolerance.

Philosophes

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by the French name Philosophe meaning Philosopher. Not all philosophes were French, however, and few were philosophers in strict sense of the term. Theory were writers, professors, journalists, economists, and above all, social reformers. They came chiefly from the nobility and the middle class. Most of the leaders of the Enlightenment were French, but even the French would have acknowledged that the English had provided the philosophical inspiration for the Enlightenment. to the philosophes, the role of philosophy was to change the world. One writer said that the philosopher is one who applies himself to the study of society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier. Writers during the Enlightenment and who popularized the new ideas of the time.

Maria Winkelmann

The most famous of the female astronomers in Germany. SHe received training in astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. Winkelmann was made some original contribut=tions to astronomy, including the discovery of comet.

Andreas Vesalius

The new anatomy of the sixteenth century was based on the work of Andreas Versalius. In his book On the fabric of the human body. Vesalius discussed what he had found when dissecting human bodies while he was a professor of surgery at the University of Papua. a Flemish surgeon who is considered the father of modern anatomy. Flemish scientist who pioneered the study of anatomy and provided detailed overviews of the human body and its systems.

Johannes Kepler

The next step in destroying the Ptolemaic system was taken by the German mathematician Johannes Kepler. He used detailed astronomical data to aerie at his laws of plantray motion. His observations confirmed that the Sun was at the center of the universe and also added new information. In his first law, keeper show that the orbits of the planets around the Sun were not circular, as Coperinuchad thought. German astronomer who first stated laws of planetary motion

Adam Smith

The physiocrats and scottih philosopher Adam Smith have been viewed as the founders of the modern social science of economics. His famous work The Wealth of nations. Smith Believed thatvthe state should not interfere in economic matter.s Smith gave to government only three basic roles: protecting society from invasion ( the army); defending citizens from injustice ( the police); and keeping up certain public work, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford. Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Seen today as the father of Capitalism. Wrote On the Wealth of Nations (1776) One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations a precursor to modern Capitalism.

Ptolemy

The renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin and thus had access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato. Ptolemy, who lived in the second century A.D, was the greatest astronomer of antiquity. With the ideas, as well as those of Aristotle and of christianity, the philosophers of the Middle Ages had constructed a model of the universe known later as the ptolemaic. His ideas on science influenced Muslim and European scholars from Roman times until the Scientific Revolution. He was a Greco-Roman writer famous as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Greek, and held Roman citizenship.Alexandrian astronomer who proposed a geocentric system of astronomy that was undisputed until Copernicus.Roman geographer-astronomer and author of Guide to Geography which included maps containing a grid system of latitude and longitude.

Laissez-faire

This doctrine became known by its French name, laissez- faire meaning " to let (people) do ( what they want)" The best statement of laissez-faire was made in 1776 by Adam Smith in his famous work The Wealth Of Nations.Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs.a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering.Policy that government should interfere as little as possible in the nation's economy.

Deism

Throughout the voltaire's life the voltarie championed deism, and eighteenth century religious philosophy based on reason and natural laws. Deism built on the idea of the Newtonisn world-machine. In the Deists' view a mechanic ( God) had created the universe. A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.he religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

Nicholas Copernicus

a native of Poland, published his famous book, ON the Revolutions of the Heavenly spheres. Copernicus, a mathematician, felt that the geocentric system was to complicated. He believed that his heliocentric, or sun- centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system. Copernicus argued that the Sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe. He thought that the sun was the center & the plants went around the sun in circles.He believed in a heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe. He argued that the Sun was at the center of the universe. The planets revolved around the sun.

Francis Bacon

an English philosopher with few scientific credentials, believed that instead of relying on the ideas of ancient authorities, scientist should use inductive reasoning to learn about nature. He was clear about what he believed his scientific method could accomplish. He states that " the true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this: that human life be endowed with new discoveries and power". He was much more concerned with practical matter than pure science. Bacon wanted science to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade. He believed it could be used to " conquer nature in action".developed the scientific method

William Harvey

reputation rest on his book On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, published in 1628. Harvey's work was based on close observations and experiments. Harvey showed that the heart- not liver, as Galen had though was the beginning point for the circulation of blood in the body. A science of chemistry also arose in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He also proved that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries. He showed that blood make a complete circuit as it passes through the body. English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood.Described the circulation of blood to and from the heart.

Galileo Galilei

taught mathematics. He was the first european to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope. Galileo made a remarkable series of discoveries: mountains on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. Galileo's observations seemed to destroy yet another aspect of the ptolemaic conception. He found himself under suspicion by the authorities of the Catholic Church. Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars.This scientist proved Copernicus' theory that the sun was the center of the solar system and developed the modern experimental method.

Margaret Cavendish

was from an aristocratic family. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy. She was especially critical of growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature.

Robert Boyle

was one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments. His pioneering work on the properties of gases led to Boyle's law. This hereralization states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Father of modern chemistry.

Diderot

went to the University of Paris to fulfill his farther's hopes that he would be a lawyer or pursue a career in the Church. He did neither. Instead he became a freelance writer so that he could study and read in many subjects and languages. His most famous contribution to the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia, or classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Art, anf Trades.