Chapter 11 psychology

oral stage

-(birth to 1 year), pleasure is focused on the mouth -At around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle or breast, and this process can create conflict if not handled properly by caregivers -adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development

anal stage

-1-3 years -children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements -conflict: toilet training -children work to master control of themselves -The anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist

Genital stage

-12 years and up -sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface -Erogenous zone - genitals

phallic stage

-3-6 years -corresponding to the age when children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences between boys and girls -erogenous zone: genitals -Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent (oedipus complex and electra complex) -Adult fixation - vanity, over-ambition

Latency Period

-6 years to puberty -Erogenous zone - none -Sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on school, friendships, hobbies and engage with peers of the same-sex.

persona

-A mask that we consciously adopt -Derived from conscious experiences and our collective unconscious. -A compromise between our true self and the self that society expects us to be (hiding parts of the self that do not align with societies expectations)

Neo-Freudians

-Agreed that childhood experiences matter -the people freud attracted who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality -deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality

Anna O

-Anna O. had been caring for her dying father when she began to experience symptoms such as partial paralysis, headaches, blurred vision, amnesia, and hallucinations- freud referred to these symptoms as hysteria -he discovered discovered that allowing her to talk about her experiences seemed to bring some relief of her symptoms- he called this the "talking cure" -Freud concluded that hysteria was the result of sexual abuse in childhood and that these traumatic experiences had been hidden from consciousness

Walter Mischel

-Behavior was inconsistent across different situations but more consistent within situations -Behavior is consistent in equivalent situations across time -This data did not support the theory that a person's personality traits are consistent across situations - triggered the person-situation debate among psychologists. -marshmallow study

Five Factor Model

-Big Five personality traits. -Each trait is scored on a continuum from high to low. -The first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN. 1. Openness to experience 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extroversion. 4. Agreeableness. 5. Neuroticism.

Id

-Contains primitive urges (for hunger, thirst, and sex). -Impulsive, instinctual. -Operates on the "pleasure principle" - seeks immediate gratification.

superego

-Develops through interactions with others, learning social rules for right and wrong -Moral compass that tells us how we should behave based on rules.. -Strives for perfection. -Judges behavior - leads to feelings of pride or guilt.

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart

-Found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities -Suggests the heritability of some personality traits -Traits with more than a 0.50 heritability ratio - leadership, obedience to authority, a sense of well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness.

Gordon Allport

-He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. -Found 4,500 words in the English language to describe people and organized them into three categories. 1. Cardinal traits - dominates entire personality (rare). 2. Central traits - make up our personality. 3. Secondary traits - less obvious or consistent, present under certain circumstances (e.g., preferences, attitudes).

Neuroticism/Stability

-High in neuroticism - anxious, overactive sympathetic nervous system. -High in stability - more emotionally stable.

anal-expulsive personality

-If parents are too lenient in toilet training -is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts

Carl Rogers

-Linked personality to self-concept (thoughts and feelings about ourselves). -Divided the self into the idea self and the real self. -ideal self - the person you would like to be. -Real self - the person you actually are. -Believed we needed to find congruence between the ideal and real self - thoughts about ideal self and real self are similar -High congruence → greater sense of self-worth and a health, productive life. -Incongruence → maladjustment.

Raymond Cattell

-Narrowed Allport's list to about 171 traits. -Identified 16 dimensions of personality - instead of a present being present or absent, people are scored on a continuum. -warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension

Self-Report Inventories

-Objective test to assess personality. -Often use multiple-choice items or numbered scales (Likert scales).

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

-One of the most widely used personality inventories.• Originally developed to assist in diagnosing psychological disorders. -Newest version (MMPI-2-RF) has 338 questions. -Scored on 10 scales - hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance, masculinity vs femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities), schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion.

Abraham Maslow

-Studied people he considered healthy, creative, and productive -Found that they shared similar characteristics - open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, accepting of themselves -The highest need is the need for self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential -He believed that many emotional and behavioral concerns arise as a result of failing to meet these hierarchical needs.

anal-retentive personality

-is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist. -Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so fearful of soiling that they over control and become fixated at the anal stage

Rationalization

-justifying behaviors by substitution acceptable reasons for less acceptable real reasons -kim failed his history course because he did not study or attend class, but he told his roomates that he failed because the professor didn't like him

observational learning

-learning by observing someone else's behavior and it's consequences -Teaches us which behaviors are acceptable and rewarded in our culture. -Teaches us which behaviors are socially unacceptable.

HEXACO model

-model of personality traits -an acronym for six broad traits: honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience

karen horney

-neo-freudian -Agreed with Jung that individuals have the potential for self-realization and believed the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self. -Disagreed with the idea of penis envy - suggested that any jealousy is culturally based. -Differences in personality between men and women is culturally based. -Men have womb envy because they cannot give birth. -3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety

Erik Erikson

-neo-freudian -Psychosocial theory of Development -Personality develops throughout the lifespan -Emphasizes importance of social relationships at each stage. -Development of a healthy personality and sense of competence depend on successfully completing each of the 8 stages.

Alfred Adler

-neo-freudian -individual psychology -Focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. -Inferiority complex - A person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society -Social motives thought to be the force behind thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. -Placed focus on social connections during childhood development. -Believed happiness can be found in working together for the betterment of all. -Viewed main goal of psychology to be "to recognize the equal rights and equality of others".

Culture

-one of the most important environmental factors that influences personality -beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society -is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished

self-efficacy

-our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences -Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals -a cognitive factor that affects which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in performing those behaviors

ego (self)

-rational part of our personality -is the part of our personality that is seen by others -Attempts to balance the id with the superego -Operates on the "reality principle" - helps the id satisfy desires in a realistic way -ego's job is to find the middle ground. -It helps satisfy the id's desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt.

Sublimation

-redirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels -jerome's desire or revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who've lost loved one to drunk driving

Reaction formation

-reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs -nadia is angry with her coworker beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to beth and affirms the partying as "cool"

locus of control

-refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives -Proposed as a cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development. -people possess either an internal or an external locus of control

denial

-refusing to accept rea; events because they are unpleasant -kailia refused to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without drinking

Asa is buying a gift for his mother, an overbearing woman who is difficult to please. When a clerk asks him who he is shopping for he replies, "my smother" instead of "my mother." What does this exemplify?

Freudian slip

________ describes a proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics.

Heritability

imaginating three interacting systems within our brains (freud)

Id superego ego

What was the primary finding of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart?

Identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities.

Who suggested that men have womb envy because they cannot give birth?

Karen Horney

Behavioral Perspective

Learning approaches to personality focus on observable, measurable phenomena

Max's behavior and self-presentation is relaxed and informal with his friends. When he goes on a job interview he projects professionalism and formality with his attire and language. What would Carl Jung suggest about Max?

Max adopted a professional persona for his job interview.

Likert scales

Most personality inventories employ these types of response scales

What is the main difference between Sigmund Freud and the neo-Freudians?

Neo-Freudians reduced the emphasis on sex.

Many of Horney's theories focused on unconscious anxiety.

Normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met.

Conscientiousness (HEXACO)

Organization, thoroughness, precision

Which statement summarizes the main idea of reciprocal determinism?

Our behavior, cognitive processes, and situational context all influence each other.

Agreeableness (HEXACO)

Patience, tolerance, gentleness

Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States

People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast.

Mischel's approach to personality

People use cognitive processes to assess the situation in their own way and behave in accordance with that interpretation

What is the main idea of the behavioral perspective on personality?

Personality is significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism.

biological approach

Perspective that differences in our personalities can be explained by inherited predispositions and physiological processes

personality theorists

Psychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck- focused on temperament and believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance -two specific personality dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability.

Emotionality (HEXACO)

Sentimentality, anxiety, sensitivity

honesty-humility (HEXACO)

Sincerity, modesty, faithfulness

Extraversion (HEXACO)

Sociability, talkativeness, boldness

The ________ uses images and storytelling that relate to minority cultures.

TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test

Eysencks' theory divides people into four quadrants.

These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine -Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control

What is the advantage of applying learning approaches to the study of personality?

They can be scientifically tested because they involve observable actions.

Mesomorphs

adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless

Jessica believes that she succeeds in high school because she works hard, earned a place on the basketball team because she practices constantly, and cooks well because she takes cooking classes. Julian Rotter would say that Jessica has ________.

an internal locus of control

In Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory, behavior refers to ________.

anything an individual does that can be punished or rewarded

Many cultures have stories about a hero who goes on a quest, such as Hercules, King Arthur, and Gilgamesh. What would Carl Jung say this exemplified?

archetypes

According to Carl Jung, which of the following best served the goal of self-realization?

balance between extroversion and introversion

Galen built on Hippocrates's theory, suggesting that

both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments -Choleric - passionate, ambitious, and bold. -Melancholic - reserved, anxious, and unhappy. -Sanguine - joyful, eager, and optimistic. -Phlegmatic - calm, reliable, and thoughtful.

Johanna is almost always nasty to people. She talks about others behind their backs, looks for ways to undercut classmates, and intentionally does things to impede other's success. Virtually everyone she knows eventually grows to dislike her, often citing her nastiness as the reason why they don't want to be around her. According to Allport, this negativity seems to be a(n) ________ trait for Johanna.

cardinal

traits

characteristic ways of behaving

According to Galen, the ________ person is passionate, ambitious, and bold.

choleric

indigenous approach

has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied

When reading Freud's theories, it is important to remember that

he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist -he is probably the most controversial and misunderstood psychological theorist.

Julian Rotter

locus of control

According to Sigmund Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the ________ stage of her psychosexual development.

oral

Hippocrates theorized that

personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids ("humors") of the body -choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver) -melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys) -sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart) -phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs)

Galen used the terms calm, reliable, and thoughtful to describe a ________ person.

phlegmatic

According to Carl Rogers, a healthy personality would result from congruence between one's ______ self and their ________ self.

real; ideal

personality

refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways -it is what makes us unique -Comes from the Latin word persona (a mask worn by an actor) In ancient times, theatrical masks were used to represent/project a specific personality trait.

Heritability

refers to the proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics

After Mike does not get the job he interviewed for, he moves back in with his parents and spends his days playing video games. Which defense mechanism does this exemplify?

regression

endomorphs

relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant.

cross-cultural studies

studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality

Which of the following was one of Alfred Adler's main contributions to personality theory?

suggesting that our birth order shapes our personality

Reliability scales

test an instrument's consistency over time, assuring that if you take the MMPI-2-RF today and then again 5 years later, your two scores will be similar

psychosexual stage of development

the child's pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

explanation for the regional differences is selective migration

the concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs

What was responsible for the development of the indigenous model of studying the cultural context of personality?

the dominance of Western approaches to studying personality in non-Western cultures

One of Adler's major contributions to personality psychology

the idea that our birth order shapes our personality.

Hummanistic Approach

focuses on how healthy people develop -Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (both focus on individual choices and do not believe that biology is deterministic)

According to Freud's psychosexual theory of personality, the ________ stage involves a sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent).

genital

Marshmallow Study

-Study on self-regulation (aka will power) - ability to delay gratification -Children were placed in a room with one marshmallow on the table - was told that they could either eat it now, or wait until the researcher returned and could then have two marshmallows -Revealed that children differ in levels of self-control -Children that had more self-control (waited for two marshmallows) in preschool were more successful in high school -Children that had poorer self-control (took the one marshmallow) in preschool were more likely to have academic and behavioral problems.

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)

-There are three forms of this test for use with different age groups: the school form, the college form, and the adult form -Individual is asked to complete 40 incomplete sentences as quickly as possible to reveal desires, fears, and struggles.

Personality testing is often used:

-To screen applicants for employment and job training. -In criminal cases and custody battles. -To assess psychological disorders.

individualist cultures

-Value independence, competition, and personal achievement. -Mainly Western nations such as the U.S. England, and Australia. -People display more personally oriented personality traits.

collectivist cultures

-Value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. -Asia, Africa, and South America. -People display more socially oriented personality traits.

According to freud (unconscious)

-We are only aware of a small amount (about one-tenth) of our mind's activities and most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious -unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression -The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it.

neurosis

-a tendency to experience negative emotions

3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety: moving towards people

-affiliation and dependence. -As adults - likely to have an intense need for love and acceptance. -example: Child seeking positive attention and affection from parent; adult needing love

3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety: moving against people

-aggression and assertiveness -As adults - likely to lash out and exploit others. -example: Child fighting or bullying other children; adult who is abrasive and verbally hurtful, or who exploits others

bandura

-agreed that personality develops through learning but disagreed with the behaviorist approach because thinking and reasoning are important parts of learning -social cognitive theory

carl jung

-analytical psychology -work is a continuous learning process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness -Collective unconscious

archetypes

-ancestral memories -patterns that exist in our collective unconscious across cultures/societies -Represented by universal themes in various cultures reflecting common experiences of people around the world. -Integration of unconscious archetypal aspects of the self seen as part of self-realization process.

projection

-attributing unacceptable desires to others -chris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her -a person refuses to acknowledge her own unconscious feelings and instead sees those feelings in someone else.

William H. Sheldon

-believed body type could be linked to personality -He proposed three somatotypes: Endomorphs, Mesomorphs, Ectomorphs

Reciprocal Determinism

-cognitive processes (beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics), behavior (refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished) and context (environment/situation) all interact -Cognitive factors that might influence this behavior include your beliefs and values, and your past experiences with similar behaviors

Conscientiousness

-competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, goal-driven -low: impulsive; carless disorganized -high: hardworking, dependable, organized -increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers

Agreeableness

-cooperative, trustworthy, good-natured -low: critical uncooperative, suspicious -high: helpful, trusting, empathetic -increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years

3 styles of coping used by children to relieve anxiety: moving away from people

-detachment and isolation. -As adults - likely to avoid love/friendship and avoid interaction with others -example: Child withdrawn from the world and isolated; adult loner

Immanuel Kant (18th century)

-everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap between the four categories -Developed a list of traits to describe the personality of each of the four temperaments.

Temperament

-has a biological basis due to its appearance very early in our lives -babies could be categorized into one of three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up -environmental factors (family interactions, for example) and maturation can affect the ways in which children's personalities are expressed

Freudian slip

-he suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious

openness to experience

-imagination, feelings, actions, ideas -low score: practical, conventional, prefers routine -high score: curious, wide range of interests independent

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

-individual tells a story about 8-12 ambiguous cards, giving insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. -has been used in clinical settings to evaluate psychological disorders; more recently, it has been used in counseling settings to help clients gain a better understanding of themselves and achieve personal growth

Oedipus complex

-involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother's attention -the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety

projective testing

-relies on projection (defense mechanism) to assess unconscious processes -Ambiguous cards are shown to individual who is asked to tell a story, interpret an image, or complete a sentence. -individual will project feelings, impulses, and desires onto the cards. -Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story) -tests are less subject to intentional distortion -more time consuming for the evaluator than self-report inventories -If an evaluator scores the Rorschach using the Exner scoring system, the test is considered a valid and reliable measure. However, the validity of the other projective tests is questionable, and the results are often not usable for court cases

Regression

-returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development -after failing to pass his doctoral examinations, giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy -an individual acts much younger than their age.

extroversion

-sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression -low: quite, reserved, withdrawn -high: outgoing, warm, seek adventure -tend to decline slightly with age

Wilhelm Wundt (19th century)

-suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved using two major axes: emotional/nonemotional and changeable/unchangeable. -The first axis separated strong from weak emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). -The second axis divided the changeable temperaments (choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and phlegmatic)

repression

-suppressing painful memories and thoughts -LaShea cannot remember her grandfather's fatal heart attack although she was present -anxiety-causing memories from consciousness are blocked

internal locus of control

-tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts -Perform better academically, achieve more in careers, more independent, healthier, less depressed

external locus of control

-tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control -Believe lives are controlled by other people, luck, or chance.

Neuroticism

-tendency toward unstable emotions -low: calm, even-tempered, secure -high: anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotion -tend to decline slightly with age

B.F skinner

-that environment was solely responsible for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns studied by personality theorists. -we learn to behave in a particular ways -Personality is shaped by reinforcements and consequences in the environment. -Personality develops over our entire life. -Personality can vary as we experience new situations.

Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that

-the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities -Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on -Discredited for lack of empirical support.

Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic perspective of personality

-the first comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviors -unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality

Self-regulation

-the process of identifying a goal or set of goals and, in pursuing these goals, using both internal (e.g., thoughts and affect) and external (e.g., responses of anything or anyone in the environment) feedback to maximize goal attainment -known as will power

Extroversion/Introversion.

-trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, -introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others.

displacement

-transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target -during lunch at a restaurant, mark is angry at his older brother, but does not express it and instead is verbally abusive to the server

Freud posited that personality results from efforts to balance two competing forces

1. Biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives. 2. Internal (socialized) control over these pleasure-seeking drives -he suggested this by imaginating three interacting systems within our brains

Jung's split from Freud was based on two major disagreements

1. Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in a person's mental life 2.Jung agreed with Freud's concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to be incomplete. In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious

Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience:

1. Occupational tasks - careers. 2. Societal tasks - friendship. 3. Love tasks - finding an intimate partner. -emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation

Research suggests that there are two dimensions of our temperament that are important parts of our adult personality

1. Reactivity refers to how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli 2.self-regulation refers to our ability to control that response

How many different scales are used to compile a profile from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)?

10

What was the main idea behind Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development?

An individual's personality develops throughout the lifespan.

Ectomorphs

Anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private

________ is a state of being in which our thoughts about our real and ideal selves are very similar.

Congruence

Openness (HEXCO)

Creativity, inquisitiveness, innovativeness

Ina can no longer read the street signs, but she refuses to admit she needs glasses to drive. Which defense mechanism does this exemplify?

denial

Electra complex

desire for father's attention, urge to replace mother. Angry at mother for not providing them with a penis (penis envy).

psychoticism versus superego control

dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional

The Social-Cognitive Perspective

emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual difference in personality. -reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development

Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life:

extroversion and introversion

Tammy has a positive view of challenges: She views them as tasks to be mastered. She develops a deep interest in and a strong commitment to becoming a good teacher. When she doesn't pass her first teaching praxis, she quickly recovers and works to overcome the setback. Albert Bandura would say Tammy has ________.

high self-efficacy

Sigmund Freud suggested that people who are dominated by their ________ might be narcissistic and impulsive.

id

Rorschach Inkblot Test

individual interprets a series of symmetrical inkblot cards, revealing unconscious feelings and struggles.

Unconscious

mental activity that we are unaware of and are unable to access

Sally really loves being outdoors. She likes to hike, do yoga in the warm sun, and go for long camping trips. She and her wife move to Arizona from New York so that they can enjoy these activities in warmer weather for most of the year. This process of moving to an area that is most suited for one's personality tendencies is called selective ________.

migration

When Marcos is unhappy, he is mean to other children; he calls them names and behaves aggressively toward them. He often manipulates his peers into doing what he wants. Which of Karen Horney's coping strategy is Marcos using?

moving against people

Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to

neurosis, anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors.

cultural-comparative approach

seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity

According to Abraham Maslow, the highest need is ________.

self-actualization

temperaments first proposed by Thomas and Chess (1977)

the slow to warm up baby the easy baby the difficult baby

Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context

three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous approach; and the combined approach

defense mechanisms

unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety -denial -displacement -projection -rationalization -reaction formation -regression -repression -sublimation

Collective unconscious

universal version of personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us

analytical psychology

working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one's personality

extrovert

you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others.

introvert

you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity