Chapter 11 Quiz Study Questions
How did John Calvin's ideas differ from those of Martin Luther?
-He grew up with a humanist education and converted to Lutheranism at age 20 -Calvin had to leave France when facing persecution, and eventually retired from public affairs to study -His greatest contributions were to changing the church structure and disciplines -He believed salvation came from God's grace, but he believed that the gift of faith was granted only to some and a person's salvation and damnation is predestined before birth -Calvin brought predestination to the center of the problem of faith more than most traditional doctrines -Those who were predestined for damnation were obliged to be governed by those predestined for salvation -He structured the church in Geneva in four parts: the pastors (those who preached the Word), the doctors (those who study and wrote), the deacons (those who oversaw the social welfares run by the church), and the elders (those who governed the church in all moral matters) -The elders were controversial but fundamental, and they had the power to discipline, chosen from the elite of the city to enforce the strict Calvinist moral code that extended to all areas of private life -This structure soon became the basis for reforms all over the continent as the church was self-governing, independent of the state, and therefore capable of surviving (and even flourishing) in a hostile environment
Who was most attracted to Martin Luther's message?
-Luther attracted powerful supporters, like Prince Frederick II of Saxony who intervene on his behalf which made adversaries work more slowly and carefully -Luther also had the fact that the Pope was trying to keep Charles V off the throne so he wouldn't unite with the Germans against him, and Charles V needed German support -While the Pope and the emperor were otherwise occupied, Luther refined his ideas and won important converts -His major support came from German princes and within the German cities -Luther's individual accomplishments were remarkable, but what turned his theology into a movement, which after 1529 came to be known as Protestantism -Princes like Luther's theology for many reasons, the first and foremost was because of sincere religious conviction -There were secondly political and economic factors as German princes worked to centralize administrations and protect themselves from predator neighbors, and taxes and gifts flowed south to the papacy; Luther's call for civil rulers to lead their own churches meant that civil rulers could keep their own revenues
What were the goals of the Christian humanists?
-Many humanists criticized how the Church failed to inspire individuals to live a Christian life, and writers were especially critical about the particular practices that seemed more like superstition, like pilgrimages or relics -*Christian humanists wanted to inspire Christians* -Christian humanism was an international movement where humanists formed the elite of the intellectual world and their services were sought out by princes and peers as well as universities - In fact, the New Monarchs supported the humanists and protected them from their critics -The centerpiece of the reforms was the translation of Christian texts, and those skilled in Greek and Latin (also educated in Hebrew and Aramaic) prepared new editions of the books of the Bible and the writings of early Church leaders
How was Christian humanism different from the humanism of the Italian Renaissance?
-Many of the ideas came from Italian humanism with the revival of classical literature and concern for purity and eloquence in language -It was crafted into traditional theological teaching which created a new intellectual movement known as Christian humanism -It was different from Christian Italian humanists as the Italians focused more on classical texts and languages and more secular subjects -Christian humanists applied the techniques of study but to the study of the authorities and texts of the church -The focus brought learning to men and women everywhere, many of the new humanists having been trained in Italy where they mastered Greek and Latin -They had imbibed the idea that scholars, using their own critical faculties, could establish the authority of texts and the meaning of words -Christian humanism was more a program of reform rather than philosophy, and it aimed to make better Christians through better education, especially the education of women -Thomas More, for instance, raised his daughters to be a part of the educated elite, and renowned women scholars held places in Italian universities -Humanist educational principles challenged Catholicism, as school had once been the monopoly of the Church and literacy had been preserved over centuries so that the gospel could be propagated -Now, these purposes had been transformed--schools trained people who were not going to work in the Church and literacy was used to served the state and higher classes -Humanists perfected the technique of scholarship while the church continued to rely on traditional methods of training and texts; the memorization of opinions of others became more highly valued than critical thinking *Christian humanists tried to reform society, which led to changes in views on how life should be lived; Christian humanists believed to improve society , you must study the bible, while Italian humanists from the studied classical texts to understand ancient Greek values*
Who were the Anabaptists?
-The Anabaptists, meaning "baptism again", were the most dangerous threat to the establishment of an orthodox Protestantism -They identified as people who practiced adult baptism and they appeared in a number of German and Swiss towns, taking seriously the doctrine of justification by faith and arguing that only believers could be members of the true church of God -They reasoned that baptism was a sacrament for adults rather than infants -As infant baptism was a core doctrine for both Catholic and Protestant beliefs as a symbol of the acceptance of Christ, and they believed without that salvation was impossible -It was a practical doctrine that gave people peace, is it said that unbaptized infants could not be accepted into heaven in a time where infant mortality was common -Thus the doctrine of Anabaptism posed a psychological as well as a doctrinal threat to the reformers -What was worse was the religious radicals derived from principles of sola scriptura and that Christians were only those with faith and all other should be cast out -They believed they were guided by the holy spirit and went so far as to deny civil authority over true believers -Some rejected private property and wanted to share community goods with other believers, and others literally followed passages that suggested polygamy and promiscuity -Wherever they were they were persecuted to brutal extents as heretics; Catholics burned them, Protestants drowned them, and they were stoned and clubbed -They continued to recruit followers as there was enough merit to their ideas
What was the Catholic Reformation?
-The Catholics also felt that there were abuses of clerical, state, and papal powers, however their response was to reform the church from within -Additional spiritual orders were founded as a new personal piety was emphasized, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy became more concerned with pastoral care and reforms of the clergy at the perish level -Missionary orders were formed to help overcome the challenge of converting people and they cared more about preaching and education -Protestantism helped play a part in revising Catholicism -The quest for individual spiritual fulfillment dominated and lead to a movement known as New Piety; propagated in Germany by the Brethren of the Common Life, it stressed the importance of personal meditation on the life of Christ -It was taught that Christian life should live according to Christ's Sermon the Mount dictates -They instructed their pupils to lead a simple ascetic life with personal devotion at its core -Young Erasmus liked these lessons yet young Luther found that stifling -The emphasis on personal form and religious practice influenced Christian humanism as it developed within the context of Catholic education and many churchmen adapted to the new learning and supported the education reform -The leading Christian humanists remained within the Catholic Church even after many of their criticism has formed the basis of Protestant reform -The most important part of the reforming spirit was the foundation of new religious orders -Devotion to a spiritual life of sacrifice was the chief characteristic of the lay and clerical orders that had flourished throughout the Middle Ages -There was a continuing appeal with Catholic devotional ism, which was particularly strong in Italy, there area where a number of new orders received papal charters
What was the nature of the English Reformation?
-The English Reformation was not an act of state -Anticlericalism was especially hostile in the towns where citizens refused to pay fees to priests for performing their services, such as burials -Many important people supported the learning and efforts of the humanist reform to spiritual life -Luther's attack on ritual and the Mass and his emphasis on Scripture and faith echoed the Lollard program and found many recruits in London and the northern port towns -Protestantism grew slowly in England because it was repressed, and Henry VIII viewed attacks on the church as attacks on the state -Henry had earned the title Defender of the Faith from the pope in 1521 for authoring an attack on Luther -Henry's divorce unleashed a lot of support for religious change, and the king's own religious beliefs remained a secret, but others around him supported Lutheran reforms and put them into practice -Religion was legislated and the property was sold through the Parliament, practices that found favor with both the legal profession and the landed elites that made palatable among these conservative groups -It wasn't until Henry's son by his third wife was in power that central doctrinal changes were made, and the church was conducted in English, as well as two English prayer books being created -The Mass was reinterpreted along Zwinglian lines and became the Lord's Supper, the altar became the communion table, and the priest became the minister -Preaching became the purpose of the church service and the education of learned ministers resulted in commissions to examine and reform the clergy -Now Catholics were being repressed and persecuted for their faith and their disbelief in Henry VIII's legality of marriage -Catholicism continued to flourish in England, surviving underground during the reigns of Henry and Edward and reemerging under Mary I
Where did Luther's message spread particularly well?
-The Reformation spread particularly well in the German cities where the emperor had granted freedom from any prince -Much urban property was owned by the Church and so was exempt from taxation and law enforcement, and the clergy constituted a significant proportion of urban populations -The reform stressed equality between the clergy and laymen and the power of civil authorities -The ideas spread quickly as there were large numbers of priests in the city -Many of his earliest students served urban congregations and began to develop doctrines and practices that, though based on Luther's ideas, were adapted to the circumstances of city life -Luther's ideas were also spread due to free imperial cities being the center of printing trade and many of the most noted humanists who spread the ideas lived there -Luther's message held great appeal for the middle orders in the towns whose groups resented the privileges given to priests and members to religious orders who paid no taxes and had not obligations of citizenship -Economic difficulties in the cities highlighted the bitterness towards the clergy and pressure from ordinary people and petty traders forced town leaders into making changes -The evangelism of reforming ministers created converts and an atmosphere of reform, and the support from members of the ruling oligarchy both mobilized these pressures and capitalized on them -Towns governments secured their own autonomy over the Church, tightening their grip on the institutions of social control and enhancing the social and economic authority of their members
How did Martin Luther believe individuals were saved?
-Through his struggle to find an answer, Luther studied vigorously biblical passages and the righteousness of God -He came to believe through the readings of Saint Paul that the righteousness of God was a gift freely given to the faithful, and it could be received through the belief in God's mercy, not through following God's laws (works/deeds) -It was this belief that fortified Luther during his years of struggle with both civil and Church powers -He refined his philosophy to be shaped by three tenets -One was sola fide, or an individuals everlasting salvation coming through God's goodness rather than performance of good works; sin could not be washed away by penance nor could forgiveness come through indulgence -Two was that faith only came through the knowledge and contemplation of the Word, or sola scriptura; all that was needed to understand God, His justice, and His mercy was contained in the Bible, and in reading and hearing the word one could find the path to faith and then salvation -Three was that all who believed in God's righteousness and had faith given through the study of the Word were equal in God's eyes; ministers and preachers could help but not confer faith, and men and women had to pursue their own calling to find faith through their own understanding
How were the religious wars of the 16th century resolved within Germany?
-Warfare dominated the reform of religion almost from its beginning -Both Catholics and Protestants used violent means to maintain religious purity, but it was nothing compared to the bloodshed of the sieges on the battlefields -Charles V could never devote all of his resources to suppressing Protestant dissent as he was split in too many different directions -There was never truly a united Protestant front to suppress, as there were many kinds of divisions among the beliefs and doctrinal issues that separated the German and the Swiss components of the Reformation from each other -Even as they were both weak it was really the fact that Charles V's attention was so divided that allowed for more times of peace -Protestantism spread further during the times of paused fighting -Charles V asked the pope to convince a general council between the two to bring peace, but the Protestant leaders couldn't stop the spread any better than the Catholic leaders -Thus, they fought, and just after Luther's death, both sides faced off with a victory for Charles V, capturing two leading Protestant princes and taking over leading cities of the Lutheran reform -However, Charles V's victories were always met with defeat, and the remaining Protestant princes were driven into the arms of the French dynastic interest above religious reforms -Now Germany was being invaded from all sides and Charles V fled to through the Alps, later to be brought to the bargaining table -The emperor agreed to allow the princes of Germany to establish the religion of the people, and Protestant princes would govern the Protestant states, and Catholic princes would govern the Catholic states -*The Peace of Augsburg* ended 40 years of religious struggle in Germany