Chapter 12 Food Production and the Environment

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Crops raised by means of 2 types of agriculture: __________ and __________.

industrialized agriculture; subsistence agriculture

open-ocean aquaculture

involves raising large carnivorous fish in underwater located off shore, where rapid currents sweep away fish wastes + dilute them - farmed fish can escape + breed with wild fish - environmental impact smaller than raising fish near shore + industrialized commercial farming

Major reason for success in boosting productibity on farm is use of __________.

irrigation - 70% of water that humanity uses - 1/5 of world's cropland irrigated produces 45% of world's food

__________ produces higher yields than high-input monoculture.

low-input polyculture - produce food more sustainably

United Nations (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about __________ chronically undernourished and malnourished people.

1 billion (1 of every 7 people) - each year, 6 million children younger than 5 die from chronic hunger + malnutrition + increased susceptibility to normally nonfatal infectious disease

David Pimentel evaluated data from more than 300 agricultural scientists and economist, reached 3 conclusions __________.

1) 1942-1997: estimated crop losses from insects 7% to 13%, despite ten-fold increase in use of synthetic insecticides 2) International Food Policy Research Institute: estimated environmental health, social costs of pesticide use in U.S. are $5-$10 in damages for every dollar spent on pesticides 3) alternative pest management practices could cut use of synthetic pesticides by half on 40 major U.S. crops without reducing crop yield - Sweden: cut pesticide use in half → almost not decrease in crop yield - Campbell's: uses no pesticides on tomatoes grows in Mexico → yield not dropped

3 Federal Agencies That Regulate Use of Pesticides Under Federal Insecticide, FUngicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947, 1972)

1) EPA 2) USDA 3) Food + Drug Administration - EDA assess health risks of active ingredients in synthetic pesticide products in use - since 1972: less than 10% of active ingredients in pesticide products tested for chronic health effects - serious evaluation of health effects of 1,200 inactive ingredients partially done a. U.S. Congress not provide enough funds to carry out length evaluation process

USDA urged to use 3-point strategy to promote IPM in U.S. __________.

1) add 2% sales tax on synthetic pesticides + use revenue to fund IPM research + education 2) set up federally supported IPM demonstration project on at least one farm in every county 3) train USDA field personnel + county farm agents in IPM → can help farmers use alternative

Government use 2 main approaches to influence food production ___________.

1) control food prices: putting legally mandated upper limit to keep artificially low 2) provide subsidies by giving farmers price supports, tax breaks, financial support to keep business + encourage increase food production - too generous + weather good = farmers + livestock producers produce more food than sold - analyst: end subsidies a. New Zealand + Brazil: ended farm subsidies b. replace with subsidies that promote more environmentally sustainable farming practices

3 Steps of Green Revolution

1) develop + plant monocultures of selectively bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops (e.g. rice, wheat, corn) 2) produce high yields by using large inputs of water, synthetic inorganic fertilizers, + pesticides 3) increase number of crops grown per year on plot of land through multiple cropping - 1950-1970: first green revolution: high -input approach raised crop yields in most of world's developing countries (especially U.S.) - 1967-present: second green revolution a. fast-growing varieties of rice + wheat (bred for tropical + subtropical climates) introduced into middle-income, less-developed countries (e.g. India, China, Brazil) b. producing more food on less land → protect biodiversity by preserving large areas of forests, grasslands, wetlands, easily eroded mountain terrain (used for far mining) - 1961-2011: grain production tripled - 1961-1985: per capita food production increased 31%; declined slightly

5 Strategies to Help Farmers and Consumers Make Transition to More Sustainable Agriculture

1) increase research on more sustainable organic farming + perennial polyculture, + improving human nutrition 2) establish education + training programs in more sustainable agriculture for students, farmers, government agricultural officials 3) set up international fund to give farmers in poor countries access to various types of more sustainable agriculture 3) replace government subsidies for environmentally harmful forms of industrialized agriculture with subsidies that encourage more sustainable agriculture 5) mount massive program to educate consumer about true environmental + health cost of food buy

2 Major Harmful Effects of Erosion of Topsoil

1) loss of soil fertility through depletion of plant nutrients in top soil 2) water pollution in surface waters where eroded topsoil end up as sediments → kill fish + shellfish + clog irrigation ditches, boat channels, reservoirs, lakes - worse when eroded sediments contain pesticide residues → ingested by aquatic organisms + biogmagnified within food webs

2 Main Types of Traditional Agriculture

1) traditional subsistence agriculture 2) traditional intensive agriculture

Pesticide use grown more than 50-fold and __________ times more toxic.

10-100 - 1/4 of pesticides used in U.S. aimed at ridding houses, gardens, lawns, parks, playing fields, swimming pools, etc. of insects + pests - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): amount of synthetic pesticides used on average U.S. homeowner's lawn 10x amount used on croplands

U.S., by law, label of __________ means product produced only by organic methods and contains all organic incredients.

100 percent organic (USDA Certified Organic) - products labeled organic = least 95% organic ingredients - labeled made with organic ingredients = 70% organic ingredients - natural used on food labels = no requirement for organic content

Takes _________ units of fossil fuel energy to put __________ unit of food energy on table in U.S.

10; 1 - grow, store, process, package, transport, refrigerate, cook plant + animal food - world's fishing fleets use 12.5 units of energy to put 1 unit of food energy from seafood on table - systems for producing, processing, transporting, preparing food dependent on fossil fuels + result in large net energy loss

Fao study, Livestock's Long Shadow, industrialized livestock production generates _________ of world's greenhouse gases.

18% - cattle + dairy cows release greenhouse gas methane (25x warming potential of CO₂ per molecule) through belching - nitrous oxide (300x warming capacity of CO₂ per molecule) released by synthetic inorganic fertilizer + livestock manure

__________ in less-developed countries practice __________.

2.7 billion; traditional agriculture - provides 1/5 of world's food crops on 3/4 of cultivated land

Each day, __________ more people at dinner table.

230,000 - 2050: 2.5 billion more people to feed (2x China's population + 8x U.S. population) - live in huge cities in less-developed countries where nearby cropland scarce + suffers from eroding soils + irrigation wells going dry

Drylands in regions with arid and semiarid climates occupy about __________ of world's land area and home to __________ people.

40%; 2 billion

People directly consume __________ of world's grain production. About __________ used to feed livestock and indirectly consumed by people who eat meat and meat products. Remaining __________ (mostly corn) used to make __________ for motor vehicles, starches, and plastics.

46%; 34%; 20%; biofuels - 40$ of U.S. corn crop used to produce biofuels (energy inefficient ethanol) - use of corn to fuel cars instead of feed livestock + people raised food prices in countries that were importing corn from U.S. → lower food security, more hunger, slower economic growth, political instability (e.g. food riots)

__________ of world's ocean fisheries harvested at full capacity, another __________ overfished.

57%; 30% - failure to reduce overfishing + ocean acidification + slow projected climate change → threaten food security for 3 billion people who depend on fish for 20% of animal protein

Global seafood production has increased since 1950. __________ of world's fish and shellfish caught by industrial fishing fleets and __________ produced through aquaculture.

58%; 42%

Major pest control revolution began 1939, when entomologist Paul Müller discovered __________.

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) - second generation pesticides produced in laboratory - chemist create pesticides making slight modifications in molecules of various classes of chemicals

1996, Congress passed __________ because growing scientific evidence and citizen pressure concerning effects of small amounts of pesticides on children.

Food Quality Protection Act - requires EPA to reduce allowed levels of pesticide residues in food by factor of 10 when inadequate information on harmful effects of children

Half of world's genetically modified (GM) crops are planted in __________ and __________.

U.S.; Argentina + Brazil _ European Union restricts use of GM seeds + importation of products containing GM foods - U.S.: 94% of soybean, 93% of rapeseed (for canola oil), 88% of corn genetically engineered - U.S. Department of Agriculture: 80% of food products on U.S. supermarkets contain some form of genetically engineered food or ingredient - Environmental Working Group: average American adult consumes 88 kg of GM foods each year - GM ingredient information not included on food labels because law does not require a. seed companies lobbied against requirement

Human use of land, especially for agricultural purposes __________ desertification.

accelerated - causes: deforestation, excessive plowing, overgrazing, drought - results: crop failure, formation of barren dust bowl a. Earth Policy Institute: warned excessive overgrazing by livestock (sheep, goats) creating new dust bowls i. Africa ii. northern China + southern Mongolia iii. 90% of China's grassland degraded + suffering from desertification

1972-2012, EPA uses FIFRA to ban or severely restrict 64 __________.

active pesticide ingredients (e.g. DDT, chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides) - National Academy of Sciences: federal laws inadequate + poorly enforced by 3 agencies - 98% of risk of cancer from pesticide residues on food grown in U.S. eliminated if EPA standards strict for pesticides developed before 1972 as for newer

Agricultural activities (e.g. clearing and burning of forests) to raise crops or livestock, create __________.

air pollution - more than 1/4 of human-generated emissions of carbon dioxide → warm atmosphere in climate change → areas unsustainable for growing crops

strip-cropping

alternating strips of row crop (corn or cotton) + another crop that completely covers soil (cover crop; e.g. alfalfa, clover, oats, rye) - cover crop traps topsoil that erodes from row crop + catches + reduces water runoff

chronic malnutrition

condition in which do not get enough protein + other key nutrients → weaken + more vulnerable to disease, hinder normal physical + mental development of children

Restore fertility of degraded or contaminated soils, especially polluted urban setting, is use __________.

biological methods - e.g. Growing Power farmers: use red wiggler worms to break down toxins present in contaminated urban soils + improve soil fertility for raising food crop

Plants have been producing chemicals __________ to ward off, deceive, poison insects and herbivores that feed on.

biopesticides - coevolutionary process: insects + herbivores overcome plant defenses through natural selection + new plant defenses favored by natural selection

Aquaculture, fastest-growing food production, called __________.

blue revolution - 1990-2011: amount of fish produced in 181 countries increased 12-fold - provides jobs for 100 million people a. Asia: 88% (China-60%) of world's aquaculture production

food security

condition under which all or most of people in population have daily access to enough nutritious food to live active + healthy lives

green manure

consists of freshly cut or growing green vegetation plowed into topsoil to increase organic matter + humus available in next crop

integrated pest management (IPM)

carefully designed program in which each crop + its pests are evaluate as part of an ecosystem, + farmers use combination of cultivation, biological, + chemical tools + techniques, applied in coordinated process - aims: reduce crop damage to economically tolerable level - each year, crops rotated, moved form field to field → disrupt pest infestations + fields monitored carefully - economically damaging level of pests reached, farmers use biological methods (natural predators, parasites, disease organisms) + cultivation controls (alter planting time, large machines to vacuum bugs) - apply small amounts of synthetic insecticides (biopesticides) only when insect ot weed populations reach threshold where potential costs of pest damage to crops outweighs cost of applying pesticides - Sweden + Denmark: farmers used to cut synthetic pesticide use by > 1/2 - Cuba: organic farming used exclusively - Brazil: reduced pesticide use on soybeans (90%) - U.S. National Academy of Sciences: can reduce synthetic pesticide use + pest control costs by 50-65%, without reducing crop yields + food quality - reduce inputs of fertilizer + irrigation water + slow development of genetic resistance (pests attacked less often + lower doses) - pollution prevention: reduces risks to wildlife + human health

More developed countries, people living in food deserts have diets heavy on __________.

cheap food loaded with fats, sugar, salt

pesticides

chemicals used to kill or control populations of organisms that consider undesirable - e.g. insecticides (insect killers), herbicides (weed killers), fungicides (fungus killers), rodenticides (rat + mouse killers)

__________ played role in green revolution, but use in more-developed countries = little crop yields.

commercial fertilizer - Africa: additional fertilizer boost crop production

People participating in __________. Organically grown food from urban farm greatly improves diets and increases chances of living longer and healthier lives.

community-supported agriculture (CSA): programs in which they buy shares of local farmer's crop + receive box of fruits or vegetables each week (summer + fall)

fishery

concentration of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in given ocean area or inland body of water

More sustainable agriculture rely less on __________ and more on __________.

conventional monoculture; polyculture - diversity of organic crops grown on same plot - grow perennial crops (grow back year after year on own) - conserve + replenish topsoil, requires less water, cuts water losses, reduces need for fertilizers + pesticides, reduces air + water pollution

Crop yields could increase with use of __________ or __________.

conventional; genetically engineered crops more tolerant of drought

terracing

converting steeply sloped land into series of broad, nearly level terraces that run across lands's contours - terrace retains water for crops + reduces topsoil erosion by controlling runoff

organic agriculture

crops grown with use of ecologically sound + sustainable methods + without use of synthetic pesticides, synthetic inorganic fertilizers, + genetically engineered plants or animals - classified as organically grown, animals must be raised on 100% organic feed without use of antibiotic or growth hormones

Farmers and scientists used __________ through __________ to develop genetically improved varieties of crops and livestock animals.

cross-breeding; artificial selection - selective breeding (first gene revolution) = amazing results - slow process (15 years) - combine traits only from species genetically similar - resulting varieties remain useful for only 5-10 years before pests + disease reduce yields

Amount of energy per calorie used to produce crops in U.S. __________ by 50%.

declined - factor: a. a,punt of energy used to produce synthetic nitrogen fertilizer dropped sharply - rising use of conservation tillage → reduces energy use + harmful environmental effects of plowing

Way to degrade topsoil is to __________.

deplete it of key plant nutrients, by repeatedly using it to grow crops or allowing livestock to trample + overgraze land - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: projected climate change likely to increase drought → expand desertification → threaten food supplies

organic fertilizer

derived from plant + animal materials

animal manure

dung + urine of cattle, horses, poultry, other farm animals - improves topsoil structure, adds organic nitrogen, stimulates growth of beneficial soil bacteria + fungi

traditional intensive agriculture

farmers increase inputs of human + draft-animal labor, animal manure for fertilizer, water to obtain higher crop yields - weather cooperates = farmers produce enough food to feed families + left over to sell for income

Farmers have 2 ways to produce more food: __________.

farming more land or getting higher yields from existing cropland - 88% of increase in global food production from using high-input industrialized agriculture to increase crop yields (green revolution)

selective or narrow-spectrum agents

effective against narrowly defined group of organisms - e.g.: algicides for algae; fungicides for fungi

conservation-tillage farming

eliminate or minimize plowing + tilling of topsoil + leave crop residues on ground - use special tillers + planting machines that inject seeds + fertilizer directly through crop residues into minimally disturbed topsoil - weeds controlled with herbicides - increases crop yield + reduces soil erosion + water pollution from sediment + fertilizer runoff - helps farmers survive prolong drought by keeping more moisture in soil - 63% of U.S. cropland (helped by increase use of herbicides) - drawback: greater use of herbicides → promote growth of herbicide-resistant weeds that force farmers to use large doses of weed killers or return to plowing - USDA: using on 80% of U.S. cropland → reduce topsoil erosion by 50% - used on 10% of world's croland: U.S., Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia

Retire 1/10 of world's marginal cropland that is highly __________ and accounts for majority of topsoil erosion.

erodible - goal: identify erosion hotspots, withdraw areas from cultivation, + plant with grasses or tress until topsoil renewed - countries paid farmers to set aside areas of cropland for conservation purposes

Laws within countries protect citizens, banned or unregistered pesticides manufactured in one country and __________ to other countries.

exported - U.S. pesticide companies make + export to other countries pesticides that have been banned or severely restricted or never evaluated in U.S. - circle of poison or boomerang effect: residues of banned or unapproved chemicals used in synthetic pesticides exported to other countries return to exporting countries on imported foods a. wind carry persistent pesticides

Scientists urged U.S. Congress (without success) to ban __________.

exports - supporters of exports: sales increase economic growth + provide jobs + if U.S. did not export pesticides, other countries would

crop rotation

farmer plants area with nutrient-depleting crop one year, + next year, plants same area with legumes (root nodules add nitrogen to soil) - helps restore topsoil nutrients while reducing erosion by keeping topsoil covered with vegetation - reduced need for nitrogen fertilizer + herbicides by 88%, cut toxins in groundwater 200-fold, did not reduce profits

topsoil

fertile top layer of many soils - vital component of nature capital: stores water + nutrients needed by plants

Land used for food production must have __________.

fertile topsoil - reducing topsoil erosion= most important component of sustainable agriculture

aquaculture or fish farming

fish + shellfish produced; practice of raising fish in freshwater ponds, lakes, reservoirs, + rice paddies, + underwater cages in coastal lagoons + estuaries or offshore in deeper ocean waters

Largest cause of erosion __________.

flowing water - carries away particles of topsoil that have been loosened by rainfall → formation of gullies - wind loosens + blows topsoil particles away (dry climate, flat + exposed land)

famine

food shortage; occurs when there is severe shortage of food in area + can result in mass starvation, many deaths, economic chaos, social disruption - caused by crop failures from drought, flooding, war

__________ puts humans in __________ position, should any small number of crop strains, livestock breeds, fish + shellfish species we depend on become depleted as result of factors (disease, environmental degradation, climate change).

food specialization; vulnerable - violates principle of sustainability: calls for depending on variety of food sources as ecological insurance policy for dealing with changes in environmental conditions

People can sharply cut __________ as important component of improving food security.

food waste - UN: 1/3 of all food produced globally lost during production or thrown away - Americans throw away 30-50% of food supply a. worth $43 billion a year, 2x estimated $24 billion needed to eliminate undernutrition + malnutrition - less-developed countries: food waste high due to spoilage from heat + pests + lack of refrigeration + food storage system

Natural biodiversity + ecosystem services threatened when forests cleared + grasslands plowed up + replaced with croplands used to produce __________ and __________.

food; biofuels - Brazil's Amazon Basin: cutting or burning of large areas + cerrado (tropical grassland region) a. burned or cleared for cattle ranches, large plantations of soybeans (cattle feed), + sugarcane (ethanol fuel for cars) - Indonesia: tropical forests burned for plantations of oil palm trees (produce biodisel fuel for cars) a. cleared for food production in Africa + areas of Asia

plantation agriculture

form of industrialized agriculture used primarily in tropical less-developed countries; involves growing cash crops (e.g. bananas, coffee, vegetables, soybeans (feed livestock), sugar cane (produce sugar + ethanol fuel), + palm oil (produce cooking oil + biodisel fuel) on large monoculture plantations - exports to more-developed countries

More sustainable agriculture is shift form using __________ to relying more on __________ for food production.

fossil fuels; renewable energy (e.g. solar energy) - produce electricity + fuels: farmers use renewable solar energy, wind, flowing water, biofuels produced from farm wastes in biogas digesters

__________ and __________, synthetic pesticides have not always succeeded in reducing U.S. crop losses.

genetic resistance; natural predators

agrobiodiversity

genetic variety of animal + plant species used on farms to produce food - since 1900: lost 75% of genetic diversity of agricultural crops a. India: 75% of rice production from only 10 varieties b. U.S.: 97% of food plant varieties available in 1940s no exist (except in seed banks + backyards of gardeners)

Newer form of industrialized agriculture uses large arrays of __________ top raise crops indoors.

greenhouses - arid areas (e.g. Spain): farmers save water because can deliver water more efficiently to greenhouse crops than can to outdoor crops - water can be purified + recycled → water use + water pollution reduced compared to conventional crop irrigation systems

hydroponic

grow plants without using soil; raie crops in greenhouses - wastewater from fish runs flows into hydroponic troughs where it nourishes plants - plant roots filter water, returned to fish runs - aquaponic system conserves soil, water, energy

polyculture

grow several crops on same plot simultaneously; crop diversity - example of implementing principle of sustainability: reduces chance of losing most or all of year's food supply to pests, bad weather, etc.

Where yields form organic farming lower than conventional yields, farmers often make up for this by __________.

having to use expensive synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, receive higher prices for crops - net economic return per unit of land form organic crop production equal or higher - Rodale Institute studies: organic farming methods use 28-32% less energy per unit of crop yield a. organically raised corn + soybean crops store more carbon in soil → reduce fossil fuel use + greenhouse has emissions

Bioengineers plan to develop new GM varieties of crops that are resistant to __________. Hope to develop crop plants that __________.

heat, cold, drought, insect pests, parasites, viral diseases, herbicides, + salty or acidic soil; grow faster + survive with little or no irrigation with less use of fertilizer + pesticides - help improve global food security

Sustainable agriculture call for using forms of both ___________ and ___________.

high-yield polyculture; high-yield monoculture - emphasis on organic farming

Without __________ and __________, most green revolution + genetically engineered crop varieties produce yields that no higher (sometimes lower) than those from traditional strains.

huge inputs of water; synthetic inorganic fertilizers + pesticides - cost too much for subsistence farmers in less -developed countries

Genetic engineering help __________.

improve food security - producers + investors: GM food production as sustainable way to solve world hunger problems - critics: "Frankenfood" that allow seed companies to patent GM crops + control world's food production

Since 1960, staggering __________ in global food production from all 3 major food production systems.

increase - made possible by technological advances a. tractors, farm machinery, high-tech fishing equipment b. irrigation: mix methods by which water supplied to crops by artificial means c. increasing use of manufactured chemical fertilizers + pesticides → provide plant nutrients + reduce crop losses

Meat consumption is __________ in growing ecological footprints of individuals in affluent nations.

largest factor - highly inefficient a. 38% of world's grainharvest + 37% of global fish catch used to produce animal protein

Rachel Carson published Silent Spring __________.

led to strict controls on use of DDT + pesticides

persistence

length of time pesticides remain deadly in environment - varies; can be biologically magnified in food chains + web; highly toxic to humans

Half of world's meat comes from __________. Other half produced through __________.

livestock grazing on grass in unfenced rangelands + enclosed pastures; industrialized factory farm system - raising large numbers of animals bred to gain weight quickly, in crowded feedlots or crowded pens + cages in buildings (concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)) - most veal calves, pigs, chickens, turkey raised in more-developed countries spend lives in CAFOs

food insecurity

living with chronic hunger + poor nutrition → threatens ability to lead healthy + productive lives

To increase food security is to grow more of food __________, with certified organic farming practices.

locally or regionally - consumers becoming "locavores": buying more of food from local + regional producers in farmers' markets → access to fresher seasonal foods

People who are underfed and underweight and those who are overfed and overweight share similar health problems: __________.

lower life expectancy, greater susceptibility to disease + illness, lower productivity + life quality - 1 billion people do not get enough nutritious food to eat - 1.6 billion people eat too much - obesity contributes to deaths of 2.8 million people per year - U.S. suffers from overweight + obesity epidemic because people consume too much sugar, fat, + salt + lead physically inactive lifestyles - U.S. Centers for Disease Control + Prevention: 69% of American adults over 20 overweight or obese - important role in 4 of top 10 causes of death in U.S.: heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancer

To maintain good health + resist disease, individuals need fairly large amounts of __________ and smaller amounts of __________.

macronutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, fats micronutrients - vitamins (A, B, C, E) + minerals (iron, iodine, calcium)

synthetic inorganic fertilizer

manufactured of inorganic compounds that contain nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium + trace of plant nutrients

__________ and __________ (e.g. eggs and milk) sources of high-quality protein and represent world's second major food-producing system.

meat; animal products - 1950-2010: world meat production (beef, pork, poultry) increased more than sixfold + average consumption per person of meat + meat products > doubled - FAO: global meat consumption double again (2050) as wealth rises + middle income people consume more meat + animal products (e.g. China: 1/4)

Country's income grows, __________.

more people eat more meat (produce by feeding large amounts of grain to livestock) → increased demand for grain + loss of cropland to urban development → greater reliance on grain imports - rapidly developing country go from producing all grain to important most grains - China + India a. 20% of world's population, only 7% of arable land (shrinking because of urbanization) b. import 1/5 of grain uses = amount grain U.S. exports each year (half of world's entire grain exports) c. China, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, India, Egypt, United Arab Emirates buying or leasing cropland

Today, produce __________ to meet basic nutritional needs of every person on earth.

more than enough - 1/6 people in less developed countries not getting enough to eat (food insecurity)

soil erosion

movement of soil components, especially surface litter + topsoil, from one place to another by actions of wind + water

first generation pesticides

natural chemicals taken from plants - farmers copy nature's solutions

In natural ecosystems and polyculture crop fields, __________ (predators, parasites, disease organisms) control populations of potential pest species.

natural enemies - e.g.: world's 30,000 species of spiders kill more crop-eating insects than chemicals

1600s, farmers used __________, extracted from tobacco leaves, as insecticide.

nicotine sulfate

Industrializatio of food production possible by abundance of __________ and _________ used to __________.

nonrenewable oil; natural gas; run farm machinery + fishing vessels, pump irrigation water fro crops, produce synthetic pesticides (petrochemicals produced when oil refined), synthetic inorganic fertilizers - fossil fuels used to process food + transport - agriculture uses 20% of energy used in U.S.

UN agencies and World Bank joined to establish IPM. Goal to __________.

promote use of IPM by disseminating information + establishing networks among researchers, farmers, + agricultural extension agents

overnutrition

occurs when food energy intake exceeds energy use + causes excess body fat; too many calories, too little exercise, or both causes

alley cropping (agroforestry)

one or more crops, usually legumes or other crops that add nitrogen to soil, planted together in alleys between orchard trees or fruit-bearing shrubs (provide shade) - reduces water loss by evaporation + helps retain + slowly release soil moisture

chronic undernutrition or hunger

people who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet basic energy needs - live in low-income, less-developed countries - afford only low-protein, high-carbohydrate, vegetarian diet (grains: wheat, rice, corn)

One way to degrade soils is to __________.

plant crops (corn, cotton) on same land several years in row → deplete nutrients (nitrogen) in topsoil

contour planting

plowing + planting crops in rows across slope of land rather than up + down - less steeply sloped land - each row acts as small damn to help hold topsoil by slowing runoff

Root cause of food insecurity is __________.

poverty - prevents poor people from growing or buying enough food to meet needs - 1/2 world's people trying to survive on $2.25 a day - 1/6 people stuggle to get by on $1.25 da day

desertification

process in which productive potential of topsoil falls by 10% or more because of prolonged drought + human activities that expose topsoil to erosion - major threat to food security - moderate: drop of 10-25% - severe: 25-50% - very severe: 50% - result: gullies + sand dunes; extreme cases: deserts

compost

produced when microorganisms in topsoil break down organic matter (leaves, crop residues, food wastes, paper, wood) in presence of oxygen - Allen: uses millions of red wiggler worms, reproduce + eat own weight in food wastes, converting to plan nutrients a. generates heat, used to help warm farm's greenhouses

polyaquaculture

raise fish or shrimp along algae, seaweeds, + shellfish in coastal lagoons, ponds, tanks - wastes of fish or shrimp feed other species a. enough waste from first group to feed second group

World's aquaculture involves __________.

raising species that feed on algae or other plants - China + India: carp; U.S.: catfish; tilapia + shellfish - farming of meat-eating species (shrimp, salmon) growing (more-developed countries) a. fed fishmeal + fish oil produced from other fish + wastes

Fish farmers __________ from aquaculture by raising shrimp and fish species in inland facilities using __________.

reducing coastal damage; zero-discharge freshwater - rirculating aquaculture system: water used to raise fish continually recycled - e.g.: Scandinavian Silver Eel Farm (Sweden): captures fish wastes + converts to fertilizer → reduces discharge of polluting wastes + need for antibiotics to combat disease + eliminates farmed fish escaping into natural aquatic systems

Large-scale industrialized agriculture works against earth by __________.

replacing natural biodiversity with engineered monocultures - changes earth to suit crop, but could diversify crops to suit earth's natural processes

__________ some of lost plant nutrients that have been washed, blown, or leached out of topsoil, or removed by repeated crop harvesting.

restore - use organic fertilizer or synthetic inorganic fertilizer

In undisturbed, vegetated ecosystems, __________ of plants help to anchor topsoil and prevent erosion.

roots - when remove soil-holding grasses, trees, etc. through deforestation + overgrazing → topsoil subject to erosion - UNEP + World Resources Institute: topsoil eroding faster than forms on 38% of world's cropland

Traditionally, farmers have __________ from year to year to save money and have ability to grow food in famine.

saved seeds - India + less-developed countries, but U.S.: farmers plant genetically engineered crops a. companies sell seeds have patent: forbid user to save + sued farmers caught saving

More sustainable form of meat production and consumption would involve __________.

shifting from less grain-efficient forms of animal proteins (e.g. beef, pork, carnivorous fish_ to more grain-efficient forms (poultry, plant-eating farmed fish) - 1996: poultry taken lead over beef in marketplace + herbivorous fish farming exceed beef production

Losing agrobiodiversity, rapidly __________ world's genetic "library": critical for increasing food yield.

shrinking - individual plants + seeds from endangered varieties of crops + wild plant species important to world's food supply stored in 1,400 refrigerated seed banks + agricultural research center + botanical gardens a. power failures, fires, storms, war, unintentional disposal of seeds → losses of stored plants + seeds b. seeds of many plants cannot be stored successfully in seed because i. do not remain alive indefinitely, must be planted + germinated periodically → new seeds collected for storage

3 systems depend on __________ number of plant and animal species.

small - 14 of 50,000 plant species supply 90% of world's food calories - 2 of every 3 people in world survive primarily by eating 1 or more of 3 grain crops: rice, wheat, corn - few species of mammals + fish provide world's meat + seafood

Increase in demand for locally grown food could result in __________.

small, diversified farms that produce organic, minimally processed food from plants + animals (eco-farming)

Best way to maintain soil fertility is through __________.

soil conservation

pest

species that interferes with human welfare by competing with for food, invading homes, lawns, or gardens, destroying building materials, spreading disease, invading ecosystems, being a nuisance - 100 species of plants (weeds), animals (insects), fungi, + microbes cause damage to crops grow

Where inputs do increase yields, comes point where yields __________ because of inability of crop plants to take up __________ from additional fertilizer and irrigation water.

stop growing; nutrients

traditional subsistence agriculture

supplements energy from sun with labor of humans + draft animals to produce enough crops for farm family's survival, with little left over to sell or store as reserve

Farmers, in more-developed countries, rely on __________.

synthetic inorganic fertilizers - 25% of world's crop yield - replace depleted inorganic nutrients, do not replace organic matter - to completely restore nutrients to topsoil: inorganic + organic fertilizers used - scientist encourage farmers use green manure

broad-spectrum agents

toxic to beneficial species as well as to pests - e.g.: chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds (DDT, organophosphate compounds: malathion + parathion)

windbreaks (shelterbelts)

trees around crop fields to reduce wind erosion - trees retain soil moisture, supply wood for fuel, provide habitat for birds + insects, help with pest control + pollination

slash-and-burn agriculture

type of polyculture: involves burning + clearing small plots in tropical forests → growing variety of crops for few years until soil depleted of nutrients → shift to other plots to begin process again - each abandoned patch has to be left fallow (unplanted) for 10-30 years before soil fertile enough to grow crops again - South America + Africa: tradititional farmers grow 20 different crops together on small cleared plots in tropical forests a. rely on sunshine + natural fertilizer (e.g. animal manure) for growth + mature different times b. provide food + keep topsoil covered to reduce erosion from wind + water c. lessens need for fertilizer + water because root systems at different depths in soil capture nutrients + moisture efficiently d. synthetic insecticides + herbicides rarely needed because multiple habitats created for natural predators of crop-eating insects e. weeks have trouble competing with multitude + density of crop plants

When clear forests and grasslands, plant monoculture crops, and douse fields with chemicals that kill pests, __________.

upset natural population checks + balances - devise + pay ways to protect monoculture crops, tree plantations, lawns, etc. from insects + pests that nature helped control at no charge

Industrialized agriculture allowed farmers to __________.

use less land to produce more food → protect biodiversity by reducing destruction of forests + grasslands for farming

industrialized agriculture or high-input agriculture

uses heavy equipment along with large financial capital, fossil fuels, water, commercial inorganic fertilizers, pesticides to produce single crops (monocultures) - goal: increase each crop's yield (amount of food produced per unit of land) - practiced on 25% of all cropland, mostly in more-developed countries - produces 80% of world's food

soil conservation

using variety of methods to reduce topsoil erosion + restore soil fertility, mostly by keeping land covered with vegetation

People in less-developed countries, suffer from deficiency of one or more __________, usually __________.

vitamins + minerals; vitamin A, iron, iodine - World Health Organization: 250,000 children younger than 6 go blind every year from lack of vitamin A; more than 1/2 die - too little iron (component of hemoglobin that transports oxygen in blood) → anemia → fatigue, makes infection more likely, increases woman's chances of dying from hemorrhage in childbirth a. 1 of every 5 people (women, children) suffer from iron deficiency - iodine essential for proper functioning of thyroid gland, which produces hormones that control body's rate of metabolism a. lack of iodine → stunts growth, mental retardation, goiter (swollen thyroid gland that can lead to deafness) b. UN: 600 million people suffer from goifer (South, Southeast Asia) c. 26 million children suffer irreversible brain damage d. to eliminate = add traces of iodine in salt - 2-3 cents per year for every person in world

Other obstacles to food security are __________.

war, bad weather (e.g. droughts, flooding, heat waves), climate change, corruption, political upheveal

Factors Farmers Have Little Control in Agriculture

weather, crop prices, crop pest + disease, interest rates on loans, global markets

Harmful Environmental Cost of Modern Industrialized Food Production

• relies heavily on fossil fuels + adds greenhouse gases to atmosphere + contributes to climate change • reduces biodiversity + agrobiodiversity + interferes with cycling of plant nutrients

International Treaties Between Countries

• 1998: 50 countries required exporting countries to have informed consent from importing countries for exports of 22 synthetic pesticides + 5 industrial chemicals • 2000: > 100 countries banned or phased out use of 12 persistent organic pollutants (POPs) - 9 persistent hydrocarbon pesticides (e.g. DDT) • 2011: expanded to 21 chemicals • 2004: POPs went into effect • 2012: signed or ratified by 172 countries, not U.S.

United Nations Environment Programme, agriculture accounts for __________.

• 70% of freshwater removed from aquifers + surface waters • uses 38% of world's ice-free land • emits 25% of world's greenhouse gas emissions • produces 60% of all water pollution

Synthetic Pesticides Drawbacks

• accelerate development of genetic resistance to pesticides in pest organisms - develop immunity to widely used pesticides through natural selection + comeback stronger • put farmers on financial treadmill - genetic resistance = farmers pay more for chemical pest control program (less effective) • insecticides kill natural predators + parasites that help control pest populations - 100 of 300 destructive insect pests in U.S. were minor pests until use of insecticides wiped out natural predators (e.g. spiders) • pesticides applied inefficiently + pollute environment - 98-99.9% of insecticides + 95% of herbicides applied by aerial spraying or ground spraying do not reach target pests a. end in air, surface water, groundwater, bottom sediments, food, nontarget organisms (e.g. humans, livestock, wildlife) • harm wildlife - USDA + U.S. Fish + Wildlife Service: poison honeybee colonies (depend on for pollination of food crops) - Center for Biological Diversity: menace 1/3 endangered + threatened species in U,S, • threaten human health - WHO + UNEP: poison 3 million agricultural workers (less-developed countries) + 300,000 (U.S.) - 20,000-40,000 deaths per year - residue in food causes 4,000-20,000 cases of cancer

Types of Organic Fertilzers

• animal manure • green manure • compost

Environmental and Animal Health Problems Associated with Factory Farming

• animals fed grain, soybeans, fishmeal, fish oi • doctored with growth hormones + antibiotics → added to accelerate livestock growth → crowding → animal wastes + runoff from feedlots + CAFOs = serious impacts on air + water

Disadvantages of Animal Feedlots

• animals unnaturally confined + crowded • large inputs of grain, fishmeal, water, fossil fuels - feed livestock + wash away wastes • greenhouse gas (CO₂, CH₄) emissions - water + air pollution - Environmental Working Group: producing lamb, beef, pork, farmed salmon, cheese through industrialized agriculture generates 10-20 x more greenhouse gases per unit of weight than producing common vegetable + grains • concentration of animal wastes → pollute water • use of antibiotics → increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans - Union of Concerned Scientists: 80% of antibiotics sold in U.S. added to animal feeds - prevent diseases in crowded feedlots + CAFOs + promote growth of animals before slaughtered - development of new + aggressive disease organisms - meat artificially cheap because harmful environmental + health costs not included in market prices of meat + meat products • USDA: animal waste amounts to 130x amount of waste produced by country's human population - globally: half of manure returned to land as nutrient-rich fertilizer - other half pollutes air, water, soil, produces foul odors, emits large quantities of climate-changing greenhouse gases in atmosphere

Harmful Effects of Industrialized Agriculture

• biodiversity loss: - conversion of grassland, forests, + wetlands to crops or rangeland - fish kills from pesticide runoff - killing of wild predators to protect livestock - loss of agrobiodiversity replaced by monoculture strains • soil: - erosion - loss of fertility - salinization - waterlogging - desertification • water: - aquifer depletion - increased runoff, sediment pollution, + flooding from cleared land - pollution from pesticides - algal blooms + fish kills caused by runoff of fertilizers + farm wastes • air pollution: - emissions of greenhouse gases CO₂ from fossil fuels, N₂O from inorganic fertilizer use, + methane (CH₄) from cattle - other air pollutants from fossil fuel use + pesticide sprays • human health: - nitrates in drinking water (blue baby) - pesticide residues in water, food, air - livestock wastes in drinking + swimming water - bacterial contamination of meat

Global Citizens' Report on State of GMOs

• called into question industry claims that genetic engineering increase crop yields, lessen need for pesticides, + yield drought-tolerant crops • summarized findings indicating GM crops with built-on toxins (Bt toxins: fend off insects in corn production) threaten human health - trigger inflammatory response → disease (e.g. diabetes, heart disease) - herbicide-resistant genetically engineered crops → increase herbicide use + herbicide = resistant superweeds • if Gm organisms released harmful genetic or ecological effects = cannot be recalled -e.g.: genes in plant pollen from genetically engineered crops spread among nonengineered species • form hybrids with wild crop varieties • reduce natural genetic biodiversity • reduce gene pool needed to crossbreed new crop varieties + develop new genetically engineered varieties

Can increase food supply by cultivating more land?

• cleared + converted 38% of world's ice-free land surface for croplands + pastures • clearing forests + irrigating arid land → speed up + magnify climate change + biodiversity losses • has poor soil fertility, steep slopes → expensive + not ecologically sustainable • fertile croplands in coasstal areas (floodplains + river deltas) flooded by rising sea levels from projected climate change - food production drop in major food-producing areas because droughts+ heat waves from clmate change

Future, food grown in cities with high-rise buildings: vertical farm

• crops growing on every floor • sloped glass front → bring in sunlight, + excess heat collected stored in tanks underneath building for use as needed • have solar panels → generating electricity on rooftop or overhand • capture + recycle rainwater for irrigating wide diversity of crops

More Sustainable Food Production

• eat less meat, no meat, or organically certified meat • choose sustainably produced herbivorous fish • use organic farming to grow food • buy certified organic food • eat locally grown food • compost food waste • cut food waste

Organic Agriculture Characteristics

• emphasizes prevention of soil erosion + use of organic fertilizers (e.g. animal manure + compost), no sewage sludge, to supply plant nutrients • employs crop rotation + biological pest control • uses no genetically modified seeds • reduces fossil fuel use + increases use of renewable energy (e.g. solar + wind power) for generating electricity • produces less air + water pollution + greenhouse gases • regionally + locally oriented • uses no antibiotics or growth hormones to produce meat + meat products

Core Case Study: Growing Power—An Urban Food Oasis

• food desert: urban area where people have little or not easy access to nutritious food without traveling long distances - U.S.: 23.5 million people live (U.S. Centers of Disease Control + Prevention) - rely on convenience stores + fast food restaurants = high-calorie, highly processed foods → obesity, diabetes, heart disease • Will Allen: bought farm (Milwaukee, Wisconsin) to become food oasis - developed Growing Power, INC: ecologically based farm + showcase for forms of agriculture that apply 3 principles of sustainability - powered by solar electric + solar hot water systems + make use of greenhouses to capture solar energy for growing food - diversity of crops (vegetables, organic herbs, sunflowers) + chickens, turkeys, goats, fish (tilapia, perch), honey bees - farm's nutrients recycled: wastes from farmed fish used as nutrients to raise crops - farm's products sold at Growing Power farm stands + restaurants - worked with city to establish Farm-to- City Market Basket program: people sign up for weekly deliveries of organic produce at modest prices - runs education program for school children who visit to learn origin of food + training program - partnered with city to create new green jobs for unemployed, low-income workers: build greenhouses + grow good organically

Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticides

• fool pests: cultivation practices to fake out pests (e.g. rotating types of crops planted in field + adjusting planting times → insect pests starve or get eaten by natural predator) • provide homes for pest enemies: farmers increase use of polyculture, uses plant diversity to reduce losses to pests by providing habitats for pests' predators • implant genetic resistance: use genetic engineering to speed up development of pest-+-disease-resistant crop strains • bring in natural enemies: use biological control by importing natural predators, parasites, disease-causing bacteria + viruses to help regulate population - nontoxic to other species + less costly than applying pesticides - difficult to mass produce + slower acting + more difficult to apply than synthetic pesticides - some agents multiply + become pests • use insect perfumes: trace amounts of sex attractants (pheromones) used to lure pests into traps or attract natural predators into crop fields - chemicals attract only one species - little chance of causing genetic resistance + not harmful to nontarget species - costly + time-consuming to produce • bring in hormones: chemicals produced by animals to control developmental processes at different stages of life - use to disrupt insect's normal life cycle → prevent from reaching maturity + reproducing → take weeks to kill insect + ineffective, large infestations + break down before act • reduce use of synthetic herbicides to control weeds: organic farmers control weeds by crop rotation, mechanical cultivation, hand weedling, use of cover crops + mulches

Reducing Exposure to Pesticides

• grow some of food using organic methods • buy certified organic food • wash + scrub all fresh fruits + vegetables • eat less meat, no meat, or certified organically produced meat • before cooking, trim fat from meat

Advantages of Aquaculture

• high efficiency • high yield • reduces overharvesting of fisheries - e.g.: genetically engineered salmon (Chinook salmon + sea eel) to grow quickly a. require 25% less feed per unit of body weight → lower cost + reduce pressure on fish stock used as feed b. sterile • jobs + profits

Organic Farming Solutions

• improves soil fertility • reduces soil erosion • retains more water in soil during drought years • uses 30% less energy per unit of yield • lowers CO₂ emissions • reduces water pollution by recycling livestock waste • eliminates pollution from pesticides • increases biodiversity above + below ground • benefit wildlife (birds, bats) - UNEP: surveyed 114 small-scale farms (24 African countries): yield > doubled • provider of jobs + income

Advantages of Animal Feedlots

• increased meat production • higher profits • less land use • reduced overgrazing - livestock grazed on open land → forest cut down or burned for cattle ranches a. soil compaction + erosion degrade 20% of world's grasslands + pastures • reduced soil erosion a. 55% of all topsoil erosion + sediment pollution • protection of biodiversity • (no) water pollution resulting from runoff of nitrogen + phosphorus from excessive inputs of synthetic fertilizers

Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the U.S.—The First Green Revolution

• industrialized farming evolved into agribusiness as multinational corporations increasingly control growing, processing, distribution, + sale of food in U.S. + global markets • average U.S. farmer feeds 129 people • total annual sales: agriculture bigger than country's automotive, steel, housing industries combined a. (farm, grocery store, home, restaurant) employs more people than other industries • 1950: U.S. more than doubled yield of key crops (e.g. wheat, corn, soybeans) without cultivating more land - kept large areas of U.S. forests, grasslands, wetlands from being converted to farmland • Americans spend 9% of income (5% home, 4% out) on food • hidden costs to food consumption (higher than market prices paid): - taxes to pay for farm subsidies (government payments intended to help farmers (producers of corn, wheat, soybean, rice) stay in business + increase yields) - pollution + environmental degradation - higher health insurance bills (harmful environment + health effects)

Can expand green revolutions by irrigating more cropland?

• reason for amount of irrigated land per person declining: - population growth - wasteful use of irrigation water - soil salinization - world's farmers do not have enough money to irrigate crops - projected climate change melt mountain glaciers that provide irrigation + drinking water (China, India, South America)

Organic Farming Environmental Advantages over Conventional Industrialized Farming

• reduces consumer exposure to pesticide residues + bacteria-resistant antibiotics found in lower-grade organic + nonorganic foods - controversy over whether organic food more nutritious than nonorganic food

Downsides to Irrigation

• irrigation water dilute solution of various salts (e.g. sodium chloride) that picked up as water flows over or through soil + rocks - irrigation water not absorbed into topsoil evaporates → leaves thin crust of dissolved mineral salts in topsoil - repeated applications of irrigation water in dry climates → gradual accumulation of salts in upper soil layers (soil salinization) a. stunts crop growth, lowers crop yields, kill plants + ruin land - UN: severe soil salinization reduced yields on 10% of world's irrigated cropland a. China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, Mexico, Australia, Iraq b. affects 1/4 of irrigated cropland in U.S. • waterlogging: water accumulates underground + gradually raises water table - especially when farmers apply large amounts of irrigation water ito leach salts deeper into soil - lowers productivity of crop plants + kills after exposure - 10% of world's irrigated land suffers • contributed to depletion of groundwater + surface water supplies

Disadvantages of Aquaculture

• large inputs of land, grain, + fishmeal -1/3 of wild fish caught from ocean used → depletion of populations of wild fish crucial to marine food web (threat to marine biodiversity) - contaminated with long-lived toxins (PCBs + dioxins) picked from ocean floors a. producers: concentration not high enough to threaten human health - food companies pushing to use patented genetically modified soybeans as feed for farm-raised fish + shellfish → increase water pollution a. fish fed soy produce more waste b. seed companies control world's seafood production c. encourages deforestation + loss of biodiversity when soy plantations replace forests • large waste output - carnivorous fish (salmon, tuna) - pesticides + antibiotics used + wastes → pollute aquatic ecosystems + fisheries • loss of mangrove forests + estuaries • dense populations vulnerable to disease • promote spread of invasive species - e.g.: wakame or undaria (Asian kelp): food product raised on farms - disrupt coastal aquatic system • fish can escape pens + mix with wild fish → disrupt gene pools of wild populations

Case Study: Ecological Surprises: The Law of Unintended Consequences

• malaria infected 9 of every 10 peopple in North Borneo • 1955: Who sprayed island with dieldrin (DDT relative) to kill malaria-carrying mosquitoes - successful = disease eliminated • dieldrin killed other insects (e.g. flies, cockroaches) → small insect-eating lizards died after eating on dieldrin-contaminated insects → cats died after feeding on lizards → rats flourished - residents threatened with sylvatic plague (carried by rat fleas) - WHO parachuted healthy cats onto islands → control rats (operation Cat Drop) • villagers' roofs fall in - dieldrin killed wasp + insects that fed on caterpillar → population exploded, munched on leaves used in thatch roofs

More Sustainable Food Production Solutions

• more: - high-yield polyculture - organic fertilizers - biological pest control - integrated pest management - efficient irrigation - perennial crops - crop rotation - water-efficient crops - soil conservation - subsidies for sustainable farming • less: - soil erosion - soil salinization - water pollution - aquifer depletion - overgrazing - overfishing - loss of biodiversity + agrobiodiversity - fossil fuel use - greenhouse gas emissions - subsidies for unsustainable farming

Growing Power's Will Allen proposed Center for Urban Agriculture

• national training center with large urban farm for research + development of sustainable farming practices • goal: develop functioning community food delivery system that serve city + provide jobs, job training, nutritious food supply

Project Advantages of GM Crops and Foods

• need less fertilizer, pesticides, water • resistant to insects, disease, frost, drought • grow faster • tolerate higher levels of herbicides

Reduce Desertification Ways

• not easy: cannot control timing + location of droughts caused by changes in weather pattern • can reduce population growth, overgrazing, deforestation, destructive forms of planting, irrigation, mining in dryland areas, (land vulnerable to topsoil erosion) • decrease human contribution to projected climate change (create droughts) • plant trees + other plants that anchor topsoil + hold water

Science Focus: Hydroponics: Growing Crops Without Soil

• plants need sunlight, carbon dioxide, mineral nutrients (nitrogen + phosphorus) - farmers obtained from soil • hydroponic: growing plants by exposing roots to nutrient-rich water solution instead of soil, inside greenhouse • benefits: - crops grown year-round under controlled conditions almost anywhere, regardless weather a. urban areas: rooftops, underground, floating barges = less land use - nutrient + water solution recycled = farmers cut use of fertilizers + water - reduce water pollution from runoff of fertilizers into streams or waterways - little or no need for pesticides • 3 major reasons why hydroponics cannot be used: 1) lots of money to establish (less than conventional system long-run) 2) growers fear hydroponic require substantial technical knowledge 3) threaten profits of large + political powerful companies that produce farm-related products (e,g, pesticides, manufactured inorganic fertilizers, farm equipment) • New Zealand, Germany, Netherlands, U.S.

Soil Salinization Solutions

• prevention - reduce irrigation - use more efficient irrigation methods - switch to salt-tolerant crops • cleanup - flush soil (expensive + inefficient) - stop growing crops for 2-5 years - instal underground drainage system

Conventional Agriculture Advantage

• produce higher yields from monoculture crops on smaller areas of land than organic agriculture • most organically grown food coss 10-100% more - more labor intensive

Government and private programs that improve food security __________.

• programs provide small loans at low interest rates to poor people → start business or buy land to grow own food • establish programs focused on saving children from health effects of poverty - immunizing more children against childhood disease - preventing dehydration from diarrhea - preventing blindness by giving vitamin A capsule • preserving diverse gene pool - Global Crop Diversity Trust: seek to prevent disappearance of 100,000 varieties of food crops - work with seed banks to cultivate + store seeds from endangered varieties of food plant species a. Doomsday Seed Bank (Norway) • private, nonprofit, organization working to help individuals, communities, nation - help less-developed countries develop simple, sustainable, local food production + distribution systems that give more control over food security

Chapter 12 Food Production and the Environment

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