chapter 12

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A child born with the inherited disease phenylketonuria cannot produce an enzyme that is required for normal development. This deficiency results in an accumulation of poisons that eventually cause profound intellectual disability. The disease is treatable, however, if it is caught early. Most infants today are routinely tested for PKU, and children with the disorder can be placed on a special diet that allows them to develop normally

Sickle-cell anemia.

About 10% of the African-American population has the possibility of passing on sickle-cell anemia, a disease that gets its name from the abnormally shaped red blood cells it causes. Children with the disease may have episodes of pain, yellowish eyes, stunted growth, and vision problems

What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?

Adolescence, the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood, is marked by the onset of puberty, the point at which sexual maturity occurs. The age at which puberty begins has implications for the way people view themselves and the way others see them. Moral judgments during adolescence increase in sophistication, according to Kohlberg's three-level model. Although Kohlberg's levels provide an adequate description of males' moral judgments, Gilligan suggests that women view morality in terms of caring for individuals rather than in terms of broad general principles of justice. According to Erikson's model of psychosocial development, adolescence may be accompanied by an identity crisis. Adolescence is followed by three more stages of psychosocial development that cover the remainder of the life span. Suicide is the third leading cause of death in adolescents

What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood?

Attachment—the positive emotional bond between a child and a particular individual—marks social development in infancy. Measured in the laboratory by means of the Ainsworth strange situation, attachment relates to later social and emotional adjustment. As children become older, the nature of their social interactions with peers changes. Initially play occurs relatively independently, but it becomes increasingly cooperative. The different child-rearing styles include authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved. According to Erikson, eight stages of psychosocial development involve people's changing interactions and understanding of themselves and others. During childhood, the four stages are trust-versus-mistrust (birth to 1½ years), autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt (1½ to 3 years), initiative-versus-guilt (3 to 6 years), and industry-versus-inferiority (6 to 12 years).

Tay-Sachs disease.

Children born with Tay-Sachs disease, a disorder most often found in Jews of Eastern European ancestry, usually die by age 3 or 4 because of the body's inability to break down fat. If both parents carry the genetic defect that produces the fatal illness, their child has a 1 in 4 chance of being born with the disease

How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors?

Developmental psychology studies growth and change throughout life. One fundamental question is how much developmental change is due to heredity and how much is due to environment—the nature-nurture issue. Heredity seems to define the upper limits of our growth and change, whereas the environment affects the degree to which the upper limits are reached. Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages with one another at the same point in time. In contrast, longitudinal research traces the behavior of one or more participants as the participants become older.

Down syndrome.

Down syndrome, one of the causes of intellectual disability, occurs when the zygote receives an extra chromosome at the moment of conception. Down syndrome is often related to the mother's age; mothers over 35 stand a higher risk than other women of having a child with the syndrome

What is the nature of development before birth?

Each chromosome contains genes through which genetic information is transmitted. Genes, which are composed of DNA sequences, are the "software" that programs the future development of the body's hardware. Genes affect not only physical attributes, but also a wide array of personal characteristics such as cognitive abilities, personality traits, and psychological disorders. At the moment of conception, a male's sperm cell and a female's egg cell unite; each contributes to the new individual's genetic makeup. The union of sperm and egg produces a zygote, which contains 23 pairs of chromosomes; one member of each pair comes from the father and the other comes from the mother. After 2 weeks the zygote becomes an embryo. By week 8, the embryo is called a fetus and is responsive to touch and other stimulation. At about week 22 it reaches the age of viability, which means it may survive if born prematurely. A fetus is normally born after 38 weeks of pregnancy; it weighs around 7 pounds and measures about 20 inches.

What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes?

Early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. Physical changes occur relatively gradually in men and women during adulthood. One major physical change occurs at the end of middle adulthood for women: They begin menopause after which they are no longer fertile. During middle adulthood, people typically experience a midlife transition in which the notion that life will end becomes more important. In some cases this may lead to a midlife crisis, although the passage into middle age is typically relatively calm. As aging continues during middle adulthood, people realize in their 50s that their lives and accomplishments are fairly well set, and they try to come to terms with them. Among the important developmental milestones during adulthood are marriage, family changes, and divorce. Another important determinant of adult development is work.

What factors can affect a child during the mother's pregnancy?

Genetic abnormalities produce birth defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU), sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and Down syndrome. Among the environmental influences on fetal growth are the mother's nutrition, illnesses, and drug intake.

_____ proposed a set of three levels of moral development ranging from reasoning based on rewards and punishments to abstract thinking involving concepts of justice.

Kohlberg

What are the major competencies of newborns?

Newborns, or neonates, have reflexes—unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. Sensory abilities also develop rapidly; infants can distinguish color, depth, sound, tastes, and smells relatively soon after birth. After birth, physical development is rapid; children typically triple their birthweight in a year.

How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period?

Old age may bring marked physical declines caused by genetic preprogramming or physical wear and tear. Although the activities of people in late adulthood are not all that different from those of younger people, older adults experience declines in reaction time, sensory abilities, and physical stamina. Intellectual declines are not an inevitable part of aging. Fluid intelligence does decline with age, and long-term memory abilities are sometimes impaired. In contrast crystallized intelligence shows slight increases with age, and short-term memory remains at about the same level. Although disengagement theory sees successful aging as a process of gradual withdrawal from the physical, psychological, and social worlds, there is little research supporting this view. Instead, activity theory, which suggests that the maintenance of interests and activities from earlier years leads to successful aging, is a more accurate explanation.

How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?

Piaget's theory suggests that cognitive development proceeds through four stages in which qualitative changes occur in thinking: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years), and the formal operational stage (12 years to adulthood). Information-processing approaches suggest that quantitative changes occur in children's ability to organize and manipulate information about the world, such as significant increases in speed of processing, attention span, and memory. In addition, children advance in metacognition, the awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processes. Vygotsky argued that children's cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children and others work together to solve problems.

embryo

a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs

fetus

a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth

neonate

a newborn child

cross-sectional research

a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal research

a research method that investigates behavior as participants get older

egocentric thought

a way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective

trust-versus-mistrust stage

according to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1.5 years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust

intimacy-vs-isolation stage

according to erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships

ego-integrity-vs-despair stage

according to erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life's accomplishments and failures

generativity-vs-stagnation stage

according to erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society

identity-versus-role-confusion stage

according to erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one's unique qualities

industry-versus-inferiority stage

according to erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children ages 6-12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable

initiative-versus-guilt stage

according to erikson, the period during which children ages 3-6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action

preoperational stage

according to piaget, the period from 2-7 years of age that is characterized by language development

concrete operational stage

according to piaget, the period from 7-12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism

formal operational stage

according to piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought

sensorimotor stage

according to piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

according to vygtosky, the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves

metacognition

an awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processes

temperament

an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding that emerges early in life

The emotional bond that develops between a child and its caregiver is known as ______.

attachment

conservation; reversibility

concrete operational

specific kinds of growth must take place during a _____ period if the embryo is to develop normally

critical

During old age, a person's _____ intelligence continues to increase, whereas _____ intelligence may decline.

crystalized, fluid

In Kübler-Ross's _____ stage, people resist the idea of death. In the ____ stage, they attempt to make deals to avoid death, and in the _____ stage, they passively await death.

denial, bargaining, acceptance

psychosocial development

development of individual's interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society

uninvolved (2)

emotionally detached and unloving

teratogens

environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect

authoritative (2)

firm but fair; tries to explain parental decisions

abstract reasoning (2)

formal operational

____ ____theories suggest that there is a maximum time span in which cells are able to reproduce. This time limit explains the eventual breakdown of the body.

genetic preprogramming

permissive (2)

gives little direction; lax on obedience

Researchers studying newborns use____ , or the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus, as an indicator of a baby's interest.

habituation

Developmental psychologists are interested in the effects of both ____ and _____ on development.

heredity (nature), environment (nurture)

Erikson believed that during adolescence, people must search for____ , whereas during the early adulthood, the major task is _____ .

identity, intimacy

______-_______ theories of development suggest that the way in which a child handles information is critical to his or her development.

information-processing

_____ research studies the same individuals over a period of time, whereas _______ _______ research studies people of different ages at the same time.

longitudinal, cross sectional

Rob recently turned 40 and surveyed his goals and accomplishments to date. Although he has accomplished a lot, he realized that many of his goals will not be met in his lifetime. This stage is called a ____ _____.

midlife transition

authoritative parents

parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them type of behavior produced in child- good social skills, likable, self-reliant, independent

authoritarian parents

parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children type of behavior produced in child- unsociable, unfriendly, withdrawn

permissive parents

parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them type of behavior produced in child- immature, moody, dependent, low self-control

uninvolved parents

parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached type of behavior produced in child- indifferent, rejecting behavior

egocentric thought (2)

preoperational

Erikson's theory of ____development involves a series of eight stages, each of which must be resolved for a person to develop optimally.

psychosocial

____ is the period during which the sexual organs begin to mature.

puberty

authoritarian (2)

rigid; highly punitive demanding obedience

chromosome

rod-shaped structure containing genetic information

chromosomes

rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information

environmental factors that could have possible effect on prenatal development

rubella (german measles), addictive drugs, nicotine, alcohol, radiation from x-rays, inadequate diet, mother's age-younger than 18 at birth of child, mother's age-older than 35 at birth of child, DES (diethylstilbestrol), AIDS, Accutane

object permanence (2)

sensorimotor

gene

smallest unit through which genetic information is passed

a ____ is an environmental agent such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produces a birth defect

teratogen

object permanence

the awareness that objects-and people-continue to exist even if they are out of sight

developmental psychology

the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life

habituation

the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

adolescence

the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood

identity

the distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of

nature-nurture issue

the issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior

principle of conservation

the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects

zygote

the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

genes

the parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted

puberty

the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys

emerging adulthood

the period beginning in the late teen years and extending to the mis 20s

menopause

the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile

autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage

the period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (ages 1.5 to 3 yrs) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected

age of viability

the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely

attachment

the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

cognitive development

the process by which a child's understanding of the world changes due to the child's age and experience

life review

the process by which people examine and evaluate their lives

disengagement theory of aging

the theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

activity theory of aging

the theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life

information processing

the way in which people take in, use, and store information

genetic preprogramming theories of aging

theories that suggest human cells have a built in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time

wear and tear theories of aging

theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently

By observing genetically similar animals in differing environments, we can increase our understanding of the influences of hereditary and environmental factors in humans. True or false?

true

Environment and heredity both influence development with genetic potentials generally establishing limits on environmental influences. True or false?

true

In households where both partners have similar jobs, the division of labor that generally occurs is the same as in "traditional" households where the husband works and the wife stays at home. True or false?

true

Lower IQ test scores during late adulthood do not necessarily mean a decrease in intelligence. True or false?

true

identical twins

twins who are genetically identical

reflexes

unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

the basic reflexes

unlearned, involuntary responses—include the rooting reflex, the sucking reflex, the gag reflex, the startle reflex, and the Babinski reflex.

According to Vygotsky, information that is within a child's ____ _____ ____ ____ is most likely to result in cognitive development.

zone of proximal development

fertilized egg

zygote