Chapter 12 research

Theoretical sampling

In qualitative studies, especially in a grounded theory studies, the selection of sample members based on emerging findings to ensure adequate representation of important theoretical categories Sampling decisions are guided in an ongoing fashion

In snowball sampling, participants can also be called:

Informants

Criterion sampling

Involves studying cases who meet a predetermined criterion of importance

Typical case sampling

Involves the selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average

In ethnography, what is decision making aided by?

Key informants

Most common form of record keeping for participant observation:

Logs and field notes

Data collection points in phenomenology:

Mainly cross sectional

Data collection points in ethnography:

Mainly longitudinal

What is the mode of choice in qualitative research?

Maximum variation sampling

Types of purposive sampling

Maximum variation sampling Extreme/deviant case sampling Typical case sampling Criterion sampling Confirming and disconfirming cases

Types of reflective notes

Methodologic notes Theoretical notes (or analytical notes) Personal notes

Sampling in ethnography

Mingling with many members of the culture—a "big net" approach Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants Typically involves sampling things as well as people

Length of time for data collection in phenomenology and grounded theory studies:

Moderate

Do qualitative researchers usually generalize?

No

Sample size in qualitative research

No explicit, formal criteria Sample size determined by informational needs Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation Data quality can affect sample size.

Descriptive notes

Objective descriptions of events and conversations that were observed

Potential problems for participant observation:

Observers may lose objectivity in sampling, viewing, and recording observations Emotional involvement Myopic view

Two principles that guide the selection for a sample in phenomenological studies:

Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest. They must be able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience.

What is participant observation characterized by?

Prolonged periods relevant of social interaction between researchers and participants

Extreme case sampling

Provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants

Qualitative Observational Methods

Qualitative studies: unstructured observation in naturalistic settings Includes participant observation

Sampling in phenomenological studies

Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer) May sample artistic or literary sources

Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data

Researchers gather narrative self-report data to develop a construction of a phenomenon that is consistent with that of participants. This goal requires researchers to overcome communication barriers and to enhance the flow of information.

What does maximum variation sampling involve?

Selecting diverse cases on key traits

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Selection of sample members guided by desire for information-rich sources "Representativeness" not a key issue Random selection not considered productive

Qualitative studies typically rely on:

Small nonprobability samples

Combination of positioning approaches that participant observers use:

Staying in one location, moving around, or following a person

Phenomenologists and grounded theory researchers rely on:

In depth interviews

What is the most widely used method of collecting data in qualitative studies?

In depth interviews

Log

In participant observation studies, the observer's daily record of events and conversations

Photo elicitation

an interview stimulated and guided by photographic images

In purposive sampling:

the researcher has specific people in mind sometimes the researcher wants persons with influence and/or information- key informants sometimes there are certain attributes the researcher wants

Diary

A standard data source in historical research Provide intimate detail of everyday life

Photovoice

A technique used in some qualitative studies that involves asking participants to take photographs relating to a topic under study and then interpret them

Ethnographers typically collect:

A wide array of data, with observation and interviews being the primary methods

Things to look for when critiquing a qualitative sampling plan:

Adequacy Appropriateness Transferability

Unstructured interview

An interview in which the researcher asks respondents questions without having a predetermined plan regarding the content or flow of information to be gathered Use of grand tour questions Conversational, totally flexible

Focus group interview

An interview with a small group of individuals assembled to answer questions on a given topic Interviews in small groups (5 to 10 people) Led by a moderator who guides the discussion using a topic guide

Semistructured interview

An open-ended interview in which the researcher is guided by a list of specific topics to cover Use of a topic guide

What is a purposive strategy towards the end of data collection?

Confirming and disconfirming cases

Data collection points in grounded theory:

Cross sectional or longitudinal

Data collection in qualitative studies

Data collection methods may change as study progresses. In-depth interviews most common method Observation also common

Two types of field notes

Descriptive notes Reflective notes

In qualitative research, self reports are often supplemented by:

Direct observation in naturalistic settings

Reflective notes

Document researchers' personal experiences, reflections, and progress in the field

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations that are unique to qualitative methods: Relationship between researcher and participant Dealing with data Protecting human subjects during data collection: Privacy and confidentiality Boundaries Vulnerable Populations (inmates, children, mentally ill or incapacitated, pregnant women/fetuses, the elderly)

Evaluation of Unstructured Observational Methods

Excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena and behaviors Potential problem of reactivity when people are aware that they are being observed Risk of observational biases—factors that can interfere with objective observation

Two major hurdles in assuming a satisfactory role vis-a-vis participants:

Gaining entree Establish rapport and trust

Participant observation is valuable for its ability to:

Get "inside" a situation and illuminates its complexities Provides a deeper understanding

Data saturation

The collection of qualitative data to the point where a sense of closure is attained because new data yield redundant information.

Field notes

The notes taken by researchers to record the unstructured observations made in the field, and the interpretation of those observations Represent the observers efforts to record information and to synthesize and understand data

Success of participant observation depends on:

The observers observational and interpersonal skills

Gathering participant observation data

The physical setting The participants Activities Frequency and duration Process Outcomes

The success of participant observation depends on:

The quality of the logs and field notes

Snowball sampling

The selection of participants through referrals from earlier participants; also called network sampling

In theoretical sampling, remember:

Theory development is iterative

Sampling in grounded theory studies

Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)

Length of time for data collection in ethnography:

Typically long, usually months or years

Ethnographers and phenomenologic studies often rely on what kind of interviews?

Unstructured

Convenience sampling

Used when researchers want participants to come forward and identify themselves Efficient but not preferred Economical

Participant observation

a method of collecting data through participation in and observation of a group or culture

Purposive (purposeful) sampling

a nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgement about who will be most informative

key informant

a person knowledgeable about the phenomenon of research interest and who is willing to share information and insights with the researcher (e.g., ethnographer)

Maximum variation sampling

a sampling approach used by qualitative researchers involving the purposeful selection of cases with a wide range of variation

topic guide

list of broad question area to be covered in a semistructured interview or focus group interview