Chapter 12 research
Theoretical sampling
In qualitative studies, especially in a grounded theory studies, the selection of sample members based on emerging findings to ensure adequate representation of important theoretical categories Sampling decisions are guided in an ongoing fashion
In snowball sampling, participants can also be called:
Informants
Criterion sampling
Involves studying cases who meet a predetermined criterion of importance
Typical case sampling
Involves the selection of participants who illustrate or highlight what is typical or average
In ethnography, what is decision making aided by?
Key informants
Most common form of record keeping for participant observation:
Logs and field notes
Data collection points in phenomenology:
Mainly cross sectional
Data collection points in ethnography:
Mainly longitudinal
What is the mode of choice in qualitative research?
Maximum variation sampling
Types of purposive sampling
Maximum variation sampling Extreme/deviant case sampling Typical case sampling Criterion sampling Confirming and disconfirming cases
Types of reflective notes
Methodologic notes Theoretical notes (or analytical notes) Personal notes
Sampling in ethnography
Mingling with many members of the culture—a "big net" approach Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants Typically involves sampling things as well as people
Length of time for data collection in phenomenology and grounded theory studies:
Moderate
Do qualitative researchers usually generalize?
No
Sample size in qualitative research
No explicit, formal criteria Sample size determined by informational needs Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation Data quality can affect sample size.
Descriptive notes
Objective descriptions of events and conversations that were observed
Potential problems for participant observation:
Observers may lose objectivity in sampling, viewing, and recording observations Emotional involvement Myopic view
Two principles that guide the selection for a sample in phenomenological studies:
Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest. They must be able to articulate what it is like to have lived that experience.
What is participant observation characterized by?
Prolonged periods relevant of social interaction between researchers and participants
Extreme case sampling
Provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants
Qualitative Observational Methods
Qualitative studies: unstructured observation in naturalistic settings Includes participant observation
Sampling in phenomenological studies
Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer) May sample artistic or literary sources
Gathering Qualitative Self-Report Data
Researchers gather narrative self-report data to develop a construction of a phenomenon that is consistent with that of participants. This goal requires researchers to overcome communication barriers and to enhance the flow of information.
What does maximum variation sampling involve?
Selecting diverse cases on key traits
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Selection of sample members guided by desire for information-rich sources "Representativeness" not a key issue Random selection not considered productive
Qualitative studies typically rely on:
Small nonprobability samples
Combination of positioning approaches that participant observers use:
Staying in one location, moving around, or following a person
Phenomenologists and grounded theory researchers rely on:
In depth interviews
What is the most widely used method of collecting data in qualitative studies?
In depth interviews
Log
In participant observation studies, the observer's daily record of events and conversations
Photo elicitation
an interview stimulated and guided by photographic images
In purposive sampling:
the researcher has specific people in mind sometimes the researcher wants persons with influence and/or information- key informants sometimes there are certain attributes the researcher wants
Diary
A standard data source in historical research Provide intimate detail of everyday life
Photovoice
A technique used in some qualitative studies that involves asking participants to take photographs relating to a topic under study and then interpret them
Ethnographers typically collect:
A wide array of data, with observation and interviews being the primary methods
Things to look for when critiquing a qualitative sampling plan:
Adequacy Appropriateness Transferability
Unstructured interview
An interview in which the researcher asks respondents questions without having a predetermined plan regarding the content or flow of information to be gathered Use of grand tour questions Conversational, totally flexible
Focus group interview
An interview with a small group of individuals assembled to answer questions on a given topic Interviews in small groups (5 to 10 people) Led by a moderator who guides the discussion using a topic guide
Semistructured interview
An open-ended interview in which the researcher is guided by a list of specific topics to cover Use of a topic guide
What is a purposive strategy towards the end of data collection?
Confirming and disconfirming cases
Data collection points in grounded theory:
Cross sectional or longitudinal
Data collection in qualitative studies
Data collection methods may change as study progresses. In-depth interviews most common method Observation also common
Two types of field notes
Descriptive notes Reflective notes
In qualitative research, self reports are often supplemented by:
Direct observation in naturalistic settings
Reflective notes
Document researchers' personal experiences, reflections, and progress in the field
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations that are unique to qualitative methods: Relationship between researcher and participant Dealing with data Protecting human subjects during data collection: Privacy and confidentiality Boundaries Vulnerable Populations (inmates, children, mentally ill or incapacitated, pregnant women/fetuses, the elderly)
Evaluation of Unstructured Observational Methods
Excellent method for capturing many clinical phenomena and behaviors Potential problem of reactivity when people are aware that they are being observed Risk of observational biases—factors that can interfere with objective observation
Two major hurdles in assuming a satisfactory role vis-a-vis participants:
Gaining entree Establish rapport and trust
Participant observation is valuable for its ability to:
Get "inside" a situation and illuminates its complexities Provides a deeper understanding
Data saturation
The collection of qualitative data to the point where a sense of closure is attained because new data yield redundant information.
Field notes
The notes taken by researchers to record the unstructured observations made in the field, and the interpretation of those observations Represent the observers efforts to record information and to synthesize and understand data
Success of participant observation depends on:
The observers observational and interpersonal skills
Gathering participant observation data
The physical setting The participants Activities Frequency and duration Process Outcomes
The success of participant observation depends on:
The quality of the logs and field notes
Snowball sampling
The selection of participants through referrals from earlier participants; also called network sampling
In theoretical sampling, remember:
Theory development is iterative
Sampling in grounded theory studies
Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)
Length of time for data collection in ethnography:
Typically long, usually months or years
Ethnographers and phenomenologic studies often rely on what kind of interviews?
Unstructured
Convenience sampling
Used when researchers want participants to come forward and identify themselves Efficient but not preferred Economical
Participant observation
a method of collecting data through participation in and observation of a group or culture
Purposive (purposeful) sampling
a nonprobability sampling method in which the researcher selects participants based on personal judgement about who will be most informative
key informant
a person knowledgeable about the phenomenon of research interest and who is willing to share information and insights with the researcher (e.g., ethnographer)
Maximum variation sampling
a sampling approach used by qualitative researchers involving the purposeful selection of cases with a wide range of variation
topic guide
list of broad question area to be covered in a semistructured interview or focus group interview