Chapter 13

Production-centered Supervision

Concern for the task rather than the individuals

positive psychologists refer to authenticity as

both owning ones personal experiences (thoughts, emotions, or beliefs, "the real me inside") and acting in accord with true self (behaving and expressing what you really think and believe)

Bill George (former head of Medtronic) definition of authentic leaders

bring people together around a shared mission and values and empowering them to lead, in order to serve their customers while creating value for all their stake holders" -this type of leadership is considered a root construct that is considered necessary, but not sufficient for other types of leadership

moderately favorable situations most...

common; therefore, human-oriented, democratic style most effective in majority of situations ex. most common for supervisors and managers the implication is that in general human-oriented or democratic style most effective in managing human resources in the large majority of organizational situations

Characteristics of authentic leader

confident hopeful resilient optimistic transparent moral/ethical future-oriented and gives priority to developing associates to be leaders

Two dimensions of leadership

consideration initiating structure

Most research on transformational leadership to date has relied on

MQL (Multifactor leadership questionnaire) or qualitative research that simply describes leaders through interviews.

besides influence, leadership has been defined in terms of

group processes, personality, compliance, particular behaviors, persuasion, power, goal achievement, interaction, role differentiation, initiation of structure, and combinations of two or more of these.

one dimension Hofstede called masculinity

has been related as two constructs being assertiveness and gender egalitarianism

Employee Centered Supervision

have a genuine concern for their people -became the standard-bearer for the traditional human relations approach to leadership

followers of charismatic leaders ...

identify with the leader and the mission of the leader, exhibit extreme loyalty to and confidence in the leader, emulate the leader's values and behavior, and derive self-esteem from their relationship with the leader

What are the two situational factors that leadership style is based on in path-goal theory?

personal characteristics of associates (ex. locus of control or ability) environmental pressures and demands facing associates (task characteristics, formal authority system, primary work group)

Authentic leadership development model

positive psychological capital (confidence, hope, optimism, resilience) + positive organizational context (highly developed, strength-based org) -----> positive self development (self awareness + self regulation behaviors)-----> authentic leadership (confident, hopeful, resilient, optimistic, transparent, moral, future oriented, gives priority to developing associates to be leaders)

Neutralizers for leadership

prevent the leader from behaving in a certain way or that counteract the behavior

why is the task-directed leader successful in very favorable situations?

in the very favorable conditions in which the leader has power, informal backing, and a relatively well-structured task, the group is ready to be directed and the groups expects to be told what to do. consider the captain of an airliner in its final landing approach. we would hardly want him to turn to his crew for a discussion on how to land.

results of a gallup survey on leadership

indicated that most employees believe that it is the leader, not the company, that guides the vulture and creates situations where worker can be happy and successful.

using of the four styles of contingent on the situational factors (within path-goal theory) the leader attempts to...

influence associates perceptions and motivate them which in turn leads to their role clarity, goal expectancies, satisfaction and performance.

Difference between charismatic leadership and transformational leadership

key to transformational leaders is that they seek to empower and elevate followers (i.e. develop followers into leaders) charismatic leaders may try to keep followers weak and depend on them (i.e. instill personal loyalty to the leader rather than developing them to attain ideals)

In fiedler's model, the situation can change, but

leader style is fixed

Transformational Leadership

leader's ability to shift values, beliefs, and needs of their followers; goal is to empower/elevate followers

From a social cognitive perspective it should be remembered that

leader-member exchanges are a reciprocal process. evidence of this process suggests that leaders may be inclined to change follower self-concepts in the short term to achieve performance goals and more enduring changes. -at the same time, followers reciprocally shape leaders' self schemas through their responses both as individuals and through collective or group reactions

Substitutes for leadership

make leader behavior unnecessary or redundant

Directive Leadership

similar to authoritarian leader •associates know exactly what is expected of them and the leader give specific directions •there is no participation by subordinates *study found that: this was (a) positively related to satisfactions and expectations of associates engaged in ambiguous tasks and (b) negatively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in clear tasks

Substitute theories point out that

some things are beyond the leaders' control. the situation and context play a role. ____ idea does not negate leadership; but it may put a more realistic boundary on what leadership is capable of achieving from followers

substitutes or neutralizers can be found in

subordinate (experience), task (routine) or organization (formalization)

an example of why the task-oriented leader is successful in a highly unfavorable situation

the disliked chairman of a volunteer committee which is asked to plan the office picnic on a beautiful Sunday. if the leader asks too many questions about that the group out to do or how he should proceed, he is likely to be told that "we ought to go home". the leader who makes a wrong decision in this highly unfavorable type of situation is probably better off than a leader who makes no decision at all.

Globalization has changed the traditional view of organizational leader as

the heroic individual, often charismatic, whose positional power, intellectual strength, and persuasive gifts motivate followers. But this is not necessarily the ideal in Asia, nor does it match the requirements in large global corporations, where forms of distributed and shared leadership are needed to address complex interlocking problems.

Bennis statement on managers vs. leaders

to survive in the twenty-first century, we are going to need a new generation of leaders- leaders, not managers. The distinction is an important one. Leaders conquer the context- the volatile, turbulent, ambiguous surroundings that sometimes seem to conspire against us and will surely suffocate us if we let them- while managers surrender to it *it is probably true that an individual can be a leader without a being a manager and be a manager without being a leader

"Black box"

unexplained concept -regardless of the attention to leadership and its recognized importance, it does remain pretty much as a ___

Fortune article definition of leadership

when you boil it all down, contemporary leadership seems to be the matter of aligning people toward common goals and empowering them to take the actions needed to reach them.

Fiedler's Contingency Model

•Focuses on matching the leader's style with the right situation, where favorableness of situation is based on: •Leader-Member Relationship—most critical variable for favorableness •Degree of Task Structure—second most important •Leader's Position Power—obtained through formal authority, third

Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)

•Goal to develop societal and organizational measures of culture and leader attributes appropriate across cultures •Research indicated nine cultural dimensions that differentiate societies and organizations 1. power distance 2. uncertainty avoidance 3. humane orientation 4. institutional collectivism 5. in-group collectivism 6. assertiveness 7. gender egalitarianism 8. future orientation 9. performance orientation

effective transformational leaders share the following characteristics

•Identify as change agents •Are courageous •Believe in people •Are value driven •Are lifelong learners •Have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainty •Are visionaries

Moderately Favorable Situation (Fiedler's contingency model)

•Intermediate range of favorableness •Human-oriented, democratic leader best for moderately favorable

Great Person Theory

•Leaders are born, not made •Individuals are born with certain traits that allow them to emerge out of any situation or period of time to become leaders •However, research indicates that leadership is affected by both nature (genetics) and nurture (development) -preliminary findings indicate that genetics may account for around 1/3 of the variance in leadership style and emergence in leadership roles, but the majority still comes from development.

Authentic leadership

•Process that draws from positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development •On a continuum rather than being dichotomous •State-like and open to development and change -used in the practitioner-oriented popular lit, this proposed theory is the first to treat leadership as both a developmental process and product centered on authenticity

authenticity has its roots in ancient greek philosophy

("to thine own self to be true") and descriptive works include genuine, transparent, reliable, trustworthy, real, and veritable.

Authentic Leaders (luthans)

-To know oneself, to be consistent with oneself and to have positive and strength-based orientations toward one's developments and the development of others. -Such leaders are honest with themselves and with others. -They exhibit a higher level of moral reasoning capacity, allowing them to judge between gray and shades of gray

Path-Goal theory

-a development from a contingency approach that derived from the expectancy framework of motivation theory. •Explains impact that leader behavior has on a follower motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The house version of the theory incorporates for major type of styles of leadership: Directive Leadership Supportive Leadership Participative Leadership Achievement- oriented Leadership

How is the path-goal theory different from Fiedler's model?

-because it suggests that these various styles can be and actually are used by the same leader in different situations.

Examples of substitutes or neutralizers

-if someone is an expert of has so much experience(crafts people, accountant, engineer), ability and training they do not need instrumental/task leadership to perform well or be satisfied -those employees who do not care about org rewards (professor or musicians)- will neutralize both supportive/relationship and instrumental/task leadership attempts. - tasks that are highly structured and automatically provide feedback- substitute for instrumental/task leadership -those that are intrinsically satisfying (ex. teaching)- do not need supportive/relationship leadership

some of the findings of the GLOBE team suggest21 primary and then 6 leadership attributes and behaviors that are viewed as contributing to leadership across cultures-

1. charismatic/ value based- anility to inspire, motivate and expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of core beliefs 2. team oriented- effective team building and implementation of a common purpose/goal among team members 3. participative- degree to which managers/leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions 4. humane-oriented- supportive, considerate, compassionate and generous leadership 5. autonomous- independent and individualistic leadership 6. self-protective- ensuring the safety and security of the individual, it tends to be an approach that is self-centered and face saving

Transactional leaders behave in one of the following ways

1. contingent reward - contrasts the exchange of rewards for effort 2. management by exception (active)- watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action 3. management by exception (passive)- intervenes only if standards' are not met 4. Laissez-faire- avoids making decisions

Leader competencies

1. drive, or the inner motivation to pursue goals 2. leadership motivation, which is the use of socialized power to influence others to succeed. 3. integrity, which includes truthfulness and the will to translate words into deeds 4. self-confidence that leads others to feel confidence, usually exhibited through various forms of impression management directed at employees 5. intelligence, which is usually focused in the ability to process information, analyze alternatives and discover opportunities 6. knowledge of the business, so that ideas that are generated help the company to survive and thrive 7. emotional intelligence, based on a self-monitoring personality, makes quality leaders strong in situation sensitivity and the ability to adapt to circumstances as needed *importantly these ___ seem to hold in the current environment facing organizational leaders, but require further theory building and research

Fiedler's Contingency Theory in Perspective- reasons it made a historically important contribution

1. it was the first highly visible leadership theory to present the contingency approach, thus giving widespread attention to the important role that the situation or context plays in leadership 2. it also emphasized the importance of the interaction between the situation and the leaders characteristics in determining leader effectiveness 3. it stimulated a great deal of research, including tests of its predictions and attempts to improve on the model, and inspired the formulation of alternative contingency theories

LMX has evolved through various stages:

1. the discovery of differentiated dyads 2. the investigation of characteristics of LMX relationships and their organizational implications/outcomes 3. the description of dyadic partnership building 4. the aggregation of differentiated dyadic relations to group and network levels -new insights into how leaders differentiate between employees in order to form in-groups and out-groups may in part be explained bt social net work analysis. -the fourth stage recognizes the new cross-functional or network emphasis in organizations and even external relations with customers, suppliers, and other organizational stakeholders.

Transformational leaders characterized by a cluster of interrelated styles (idealized, inspiring, intellectually and individually considered) -aimed at the following

1.chaning situations for the better 2. developing followers into leaders 3. overhauling organizations to provide them with new strategic directions 4. inspiring people by providing an energizing vision and high ideal for moral and ethical conduct

Leadership across cultures

Contributors to Differences in Effective Leaders Across Cultures Personal values, manager's background, and interpersonal skills

Traditional theories of leadership

Great Person Theory Trait Theory

More recently, the "charisma" characteristic of transformational leadership has changed to

Idealized influence

Transformational leaders characterized by the following (approaches of transformational leaders)

Idealized leadership (charisma) inspiring leadership (communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts) Intellectual stimulation (promotes intelligence, rationality and careful problem solving) Individual consideration (gives personal attention; treats every employee individually; coaches)

Two types of political leadership

Transactional Transformational

examples of ethical charismatic leader characteristics

Use power to serve others Aligns with vision with followers needs and aspirations Open, two way communication Coaches, develops and supports followers Shares recognition with followers

examples of unethical charismatic leader characteristics

Uses power only for personal gain or impact Promotes own personal vision One-way communication Insensitive to followers' needs

"Big Five" personality traits in OB - resurfaced the trait approach to leadership by

a recent qualitative and quantitative meta-analysis review found strong empirical support for the leader trait perspective when traits were organized according to the 5-factor model. specifically the trait of extraversion had the highest average correlation with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, followed by conscientiousness, openness to experience, neuroticism and nonsignificant agreeableness -these results and newly developed traitlike theoretical frameworks such as motivation to lead MTL indicate traitlike approach to leadership is still alive

Contingency Theories

after concentrating just on leaders themselves proved to fall short of being adequate overall theory of leadership, attention turned not only the the group being lead and the exchange relationship, but also to the situational or contextual aspects of leadership. situational variables that affect leadership roles, skills, behavior, and followers' performance and satisfaction- nothing pulled this all together until Fred Fiedler proposed the classical situation-based, or contingency, theory for leadership effectiveness

In High unfavorable situations the ....

effective leader takes charge and makes the decision that needs to be made to accomplish the task without asking for input or trying to make everyone happy

Type of supervision was key to employee performance

employee-centered production-centered

Transactional Leadership

exchange relationship between leaders and followers

Exchange theory

• Leader-member exchange (LMX) Model or vertical dyad linkage (VDL) •Leaders treat individual followers differently •Leaders and associates develop two-person dyadic relationships that affect behavior of both -ex. associates who are committed and who expend a lot of effort for the unit are rewarded with more of the leader's potential resources (info, confidence, and concern) than those who do not display these behaviors. •Leader develops "in-group" and "out-group" of associates •"In-group"—report high quality relationship with the leader -Report fewer difficulties in dealing with leader -Perceive leader as more responsive to their needs -Are led more by leader rather than supervised -Assume greater job responsibility and rated higher performers •"out-group"- leaders "supervise" those in this group - they depend on formal roles and authority to influence them. ** LMX seems to be more descriptive of typical process of role making by leaders, rather than prescribing the pattern of downward exchange relations optimal for leadership effectiveness. -there are several moderators in the LMX- performance relationship.

Supportive Leadership

• The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concern for associates *study found that this had the most positive effect on satisfaction of associates who worked in stressful, frustrating and dissatisfying tasks

Participative Leadership

• the leader asks for and uses suggestions from associates but still makes the decisions *study found that in a many org, found that in nonrepetitive, ego-involving tasks, employees were for satisfied under this leadership than the opposite kind of leadership

Achievement-oriented Leadership

• the leader sets challenging goals for associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well. *study found that for employees performing ambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks, the higher the _______ the more associates were confident that their efforts would pay off in effective performance.

Managers vs. leaders

•Administers vs. innovates •Relies on control vs. inspires trust •Short-term view vs. long-term view •Accepts status quo vs. challenges status quo •Does things right vs. does the right thing

Trait Theory

•Associated with Great Person Theory •Concerned with identifying the personal traits of the leader •Disappointing research results •Only intelligence seems to be consistent leader trait

Ohio State Leadership Studies

•Began with idea that no satisfactory definition of leadership existed and that previous work equated leadership with good leadership -in the first step, the LBDQ was administered in a wide variety of situations. in order to examine how the leader was described, the answers to the questionnaire were the subjected to factor analysis. The outcome was consistent and revealed two dimensions of leadership: Consideration Initiating structure The two dimensions are separate and distinct from each other. Results: •First to point out and emphasize the importance of both task and human dimensions in evaluating leadership •Lessened the gap between scientific management and the human relations perspective The studies show only HOW leaders carry out their leadership function. today leadership is recognized as both multidimensional, as first pointed out by this study and multilevel (person, dyad, group, and collective/community)

charismatic leadership

•Characterized by self-confidence, confidence in followers, high expectations for followers, ideological vision, and the use of personal example •Also associated with superior debating and persuasive skills, technical expertise, and the ability to get people to do what they do not want to do •Ethics a concern for charismatic leaders (Table 13.3) •May seek to keep followers weak and dependent on them

Early Michigan Leadership Studies

•Conducted about the same time as Ohio State studies -Prudential Insurance Co., 12 high-low productivity pairs of groups were selected for examination. Each pair presented a high-producing section and a low-producing section, with other variables such as work, conditions, and methods being the same in each pair. •High-producing groups were more likely to have employee-centered supervisors •Low-producing groups were more likely to have production-centered supervisors •Employee satisfaction was not directly related to productivity, the type of supervision was the key to their performance

Leadership

•Defined in different ways •Common theme is role of influence in leadership •Emphasis on difference between managers and leaders *what is most important is to interpret ___ in terms of a specific theoretical process and realize that ___ , however defined, does make a difference.

Iowa Leadership Studies

•First attempt to determine what effects styles of leadership have on a group •First to analyze leadership from the standpoint of scientific methodology -hobby clubs for 10-yr-old boys were formed. Each club submitted to all three different styles of leadership •Showed that different styles of leadership can produce different, complex reactions from the same or similar groups Styles of leadership: Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-fair •the experiments were designed primarily to examine patterns of aggressive behavior, not on productivity. however, an important by-product was the insight that was gained into the productive behavior of a group.

Psychological States and Skills Development

•Focused on leadership development •Includes positive organizational behavior states (e.g., hope, optimism), skill development areas (e.g. technical, conceptual, and human skills), and leader competencies -describing who leaders are -the statelike (situationally based capacities, those open to development and change, as opposed to the dispositional, relatively fixed traits) positive organizational behavior constructs have potential for understanding and developing leadership. -specifically both intuitive and beginning research evidence indicate that optimism, hope, resiliency, emotional intelligence and especially self efficacy are related to effective leaders

Very Favorable or Very Unfavorable Situation (Fiedler's contingency model)

•When all three factors above are high (Leader generally accepted and respected (high 1st), task is spelled out(high 2nd), and leader has authority and power(high 3rd)) •Very Unfavorable situation has opposite characteristics (all three are low) •Task-oriented (or hard-nosed, authoritarian) leader best in very favorable or very unfavorable situation -Fiedler concluded through his research that the favorableness of the situation in combination with the leadership style determines effectiveness

Authoritarian

•directive and allowed no participation -This leader tended to give individual attention when praising and criticizing but tried to be friendly or impersonal rather than openly hostile -ex. researchers found that the boys subjected to the ___ leaders reacted in one of two ways: either aggressively or apathetically - both of which were deemed to be behavioral reactions to the frustration caused by the ___ leader. -- pointed out that the apathetic groups exhibited outbursts of aggression when this type of leader left the room or when a transition was made to a freerer leadership atmosphere

Democratic

•encouraged group discussion and decision making -This leader tried to be "objective" in giving praise or criticism and to be one of the group in spirit. -ex.___ led group fell between the one extremely aggressive group and the four apathic groups under the autocratic leaders

Laissez-faire

•gave complete freedom to group; provided no leadership -ex. _____ created the most aggressive acts from the group

consideration

•recognition of individual needs and relationships

initiating structure

•task or goal orientation

Group Theory

•these theories have their roots in social psychology. Classica exchange theory in particular serves as an important basis for this approach. •Leader provides more benefits/rewards than burdens/costs for followers -there must be positive exchange between the leaders and the followers in order for group goals to be accomplished •Leadership is exchange process (social exchange view) between leader and followers •Follower's Impact on Leaders •Followers affect leaders and their behaviors as much as leaders and their behavior affect followers