Chapter 14 Activities, Media, and the Natural World

mentor

A trusting relationship between a young person and a nonparental adult who provides guidance intended to promote positive development.

developmental assets

Commonsense positive experiences and qualities that help young people become caring, responsible adults.

Which individual is illustrating the most commonly participated in kind of activity? a. Elise is on the soccer team b. Hector is part of an academic team c. Lauren volunteers at the animal shelter d. Jada belongs to an art group

a

After the age of 2, educational television does seem to affect learning in a positive way. a. True b. False

b

After the age of 2, entertainment media does affect learning in a positive way for children. a. True b. False

b

media literacy

The skills to understand the underlying purposes and messages of media.

Children and the natural world 14.1

As we have said, children today are less likely just to go out and play. They are less likely to be able to roam their neighborhoods safely as more and more open space is developed and the amount of traffic increases. Parents are also less likely to be home monitoring their children's behavior because both parents are working or there is only a single parent to manage the home and they do not want their children playing outside the home when they are not supervised by an adult. As a consequence, children are more cut off from the natural world than past generations were. In this section, we examine the role children's experiences in nature play in their healthy development. This experience includes giving children regular access to land, water, and living things in green environments such as parks, forests, and gardens. [Page 473]In his book Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children From Nature-Deficit Disorder, Richard Louv (2008) focused attention on the consequences of separating children from the natural world. Louv proposed a campaign he called "Leave No Child Inside." Subsequently, the federal government developed the America's Great Outdoors Initiative that proposed four goals for America's youth: 1. Make the outdoors relevant to today's young people: Make it inviting, exciting, and fun. 2. Ensure that all young people have access to outdoor places that are safe, clean, and close to home. 3. Empower and enable youth to work and volunteer in the outdoors. 4. Build on a base of environmental and outdoor education, both formal and informal. (America's Great Outdoors, 2011) In 2019, 61% of 6- to 12-year-olds and 58% of 13- to 17-year-olds took part in outdoor recreation at least once during the year. Girls (56%), particularly during adolescence, were less likely than boys (67%) to take part in these activities, but their numbers have been increasing while boys' numbers have been decreasing over time. Many of the children who did participate spent a great deal of time outdoors. The [Page 474]most popular outdoor activities were biking and fishing, followed by running, camping, and hiking (The Outdoor Foundation, 2019). Researchers have begun to focus their attention on the effects of engagement with and isolation from the natural world on children, looking at a broad range of types of contact, from play in green spaces to therapy using horseback riding. When children are outdoors in green spaces they engage in more physical activity and this has been related to reduced levels of obesity, especially in children from low-income families (Evans, Jones-Rounds, Belojevic, & Vermeylen, 2012; Fan & Jin, 2014). Activity level is one contributor to obesity, but diet is the other. The natural world has been brought to thousands of children through school gardens, and there is some evidence that activity in these gardens increases their likelihood of choosing and enjoying healthy vegetables. The gardens even increase the availability of healthy foods at home, perhaps because children request them (Hutchinson et al., 2015; Wells et al., 2018). As you know if you have spent time at a beach or taken a walk through the woods, the natural environment can be relaxing. This type of relaxation can have a positive effect on children's behavior. Time spent in nature can renew and revive the ability to focus attention (Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan, 2008; Schutte, Torquati, & Beattie, 2017). Exposure to natural outdoor environments has been shown to reduce the attention-deficit symptoms of ADHD and is related to increased self-discipline in inner-city girls (Taylor & Kuo, 2009; Taylor & Kuo, 2011; Weeland et al., 2019). Children who spend more time in parks and playgrounds and have a home garden are less likely to have behavior problems (Flouri, Midouhas, & Joshi, 2014), and even children in rural areas who experience more life stress have lower levels of distress and higher self-worth when they have more access to natural environments in and around their homes (Wells & Evans, 2003). In one study in California, researchers found that having bushes and trees around urban schools was related to higher school test scores, and this relation was independent of the socioeconomic status of the families in the different schools (Tallis, Bratman, Samhouri, & Fargione, 2018). The evidence from this emerging area of research suggests that public policy can work to ensure that everyone, regardless of income, has some access to green space and the natural environment. Experience with nature and parents' attitudes toward nature promote children's positive attitudes toward the natural world, their enjoyment of it, and their wish to protect it (Chawla, 2015; Cheng & Monroe, 2012). Adults who were introduced to the outdoors when they were young are more likely to continue to participate in outdoor activities as they get older (The Outdoor Foundation, 2018). As part of a new effort to engage young children with the natural environment, there are more than 400 outdoor preschools, sometimes called forest- or nature-based programs, in which children's classrooms are literally the outdoors and activities are based on experiences in nature. These have become part of a movement to promote better learning and attachment to nature through experience in the natural world (Einhorn, 2020). Although there is a growing body of research that links children's well-being with access to and engagement with natural environments, the reasons behind this relation still need to be explored. There is a long way to go to understand the effects of nature on children's development, but it is important that we explore these effects now that children have less and less exposure to the natural world. Try Active Learning: Encouraging Children and Teens to Engage With Nature to see what resources are available in your community.

14.2 Electronic Media Use

One of the reasons why children and adolescents are spending less time in the natural environment is that electronic media use is taking up more and more time in their lives. For many years, television and movies were the only screen media available, but media use was revolutionized in the 21st century with the introduction of handheld electronic devices, such as smartphones and tablets. Now the world of the Internet—including information, entertainment, and communication—is constantly available. In this section, we look at the effects of electronic media use. We began by taking a look at how much and what type of media American children and teens are using. Even the youngest children are using many different types of media. In 2017, children under age 2 spent an average of 42 minutes per day using screen media (Rideout, 2017). Mobile media has greatly increased the use of screens by infants. In one study, 65% of children under age 3 used one or more forms of mobile media on a typical day (Levine, Bowman, Kachinsky, Sola, & Waite, 2015), and most began using it during the first year of life (Kabali et al., 2015). However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (2016b) recommends that parents avoid using any electronic media with children under 18 to 24 months of age except for video chatting, and they recommend that even that activity should be done with an adult present to help the infant understand what is happening. If parents do introduce media to this age group, it should be high quality, and parents should remember that young children learn the most from live interaction with people. No educational media improves on actually playing and interacting with an infant or toddler. For children between 2 and 5 years of age, the American Academy of Pediatrics (2016b) recommends a limit of 1 hour of screen media per day, watched with an adult who can help children make sense of what they're seeing and apply it to the world around them. The situation is different for school-age children. Media can expose children to new ideas and information; connect them to friends and family, especially those who live far away; and be used for collaboration on homework and projects. Social media can be especially helpful to children who may feel isolated, whether due to a disability or just feeling different, because it connects them to other children in a similar situation. Children between 8 and 12 years of age ("tweens") use about 5 hours of entertainment screen media per day (Rideout & Robb, 2019). This compares to 1 hour of reading books, [Page 476]magazines, and newspapers. Teens and tweens from low-income families spend almost 2 hours a day more with screen media than do those from higher-income families (Rideout & Robb, 2019). For this age group, the American Academy of Pediatrics (2016c) does not have a specific time limit in its recommendations. Instead, it asks parents to monitor their children's media use by knowing and placing limits on both how much and what type of media they are using. Parents can engage in active monitoring when they talk with children about media content and passive monitoring by restricting the amount of media their child uses. They also can use media together with their children (Padilla-Walker, Coyne, Kroff, & Memmott-Elison, 2018). When parents monitor their children's screen time, children use less of it and use less violent media. This results in more sleep, better grades, and less aggressive behavior (Gentile, Reimer, Nathanson, Walsh, & Eisenmann, 2014). Parents also should continually discuss online behavior such as cyberbullying and online safety with their children. Finally, parents should establish media-free times (such as at family meals) and media-free places (such as bedrooms) and promote other healthy behaviors. The AAP provides an online tool for parents called the Family Media Use Plan, which is available at HealthyChildren.org. By age 12 about two-thirds of children have their own smartphone. Almost all teens own or have access to a smartphone, and almost half say they are online almost constantly (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). Teens use entertainment screen media for over 7-1/2 hours per day (Rideout & Robb, 2019). This compares to 1-1/2 hours of reading books, magazines, and newspapers. Almost one-third of teens read for pleasure less than once a month, if ever. About one-third of teens report they have their mobile devices in bed with them when they sleep and another third have them nearby. About one-third of teens use their phones in the middle of the night for something other than checking the time (Robb, 2019). Although half of parents monitor the content of their tweens' online activity, only about one-quarter of parents monitor the amount of time they spend, and even fewer monitor their teens' activity (Rideout & Robb, 2019).

Helping Children and Adolescents Use Media Wisely

Media literacy is the ability to understand the underlying purposes and messages of media presentations. Media literacy education can both reduce the risks associated with media use and promote its benefits for children and teens. For example, advertising is increasingly aimed at children through both obvious and more subtle means, such as in video games or movies. Children who took part in a 4-hour school-based media literacy program over 4 weeks developed a stronger dislike for advertising and were more likely to see it as fake, although this program was not successful in making children more aware of advertising embedded in the content of games or shows, so there is more that can be done to educate them (Sekarasih, Scharrer, Olson, Onut, & Lanthorn, 2019). [Page 487]One specific area that has been addressed by media literacy education is the portrayal of smoking, including product placement in movies that pairs cigarettes with attractive young performers. Even controlling for parent and peer smoking, teen nonsmokers who watched movies with more smoking were more likely to start smoking than those who watched shows that had the lowest level of smoking (Morgenstern et al., 2013). The movie industry has been responsive to these concerns to some extent. Between 2002 and 2018, the number of G, PG, and PG-13 movies that did not show smoking increased from 35% to 69%. However, for those movies that did show smoking, the number of occurrences of smoking or other tobacco use reached a historically high level (CDC, 2019n). Although movie studios can use a "smoking" label on their movies similar to the label used for violence, sex, or adult language, 9 out of 10 youth-rated movies are not labeled in this way. Media literacy education has been used to teach students about why movies contain so much smoking. In a comparison between an antismoking media literacy campaign that taught ninth graders to analyze and evaluate mass media messages about smoking in advertisements, promotions, and product placement in movies and a traditional antismoking curriculum that taught students about the short- and long-term effects of smoking and skills to resist social pressure to smoke, the media campaign was more effective in getting students to say they were firmly against starting to smoke. They also had a more accurate perception of the number of people who do smoke (Primack, Douglas, Land, Miller, & Fine, 2014). Try Active Learning: Cigarettes in the Movies and TV to see how much smoking there is in the movies and TV programs you watch. Another successful media education program targeted the influence of media on teen sexuality. Teens presented five lessons to their peers on topics such as "Using Sex to Sell." Compared to a control group, teens who took part in the program were more likely to agree that "sexual depictions in the media are inaccurate and glamorized" (Pinkleton, Austin, Chen, & Cohen, 2012, p. 469).

14.1 Unstructured Time and the Natural World

The lives of children and adolescents contain much more than school and family. The majority of children and teens have some amount of time that is discretionary because they decide for themselves how to spend it. The ways in which young people spend their time after school vary between cultures and reflect their cultural values. For example, the amount of time students spend doing homework varies from one country to another. While American 15-year-olds spend an average of 6 hours a week on homework, students in Finland spend less than 3 hours a week, those from Russia spend 10, and those in Shanghai spend 14 hours on after-school work (Klein, 2014). In addition to homework, in Taiwan, one-third of 11th-grade students spend between 4 and 8 hours a week in academic-enrichment programs outside of the regular school day, and almost one-third spend between 4 and 16 hours a week in private "cram schools" that help students improve their grades or prepare them for important exams, such as entrance exams to schools or universities (Chen & Lu, 2009). In the United States, children today are less likely than children in previous generations to go outside to play with their friends because of parents' concerns for their safety, the amount of time children spend using media, and their participation in adult-organized activities. In a recent study only slightly more than half of parents of children under age 5 reported their child spent time in informal play, and only 28% of parents of teens reported that they took part in informal activities. Only 22% of parents reported their child spent time hanging out with friends (Barna Group, 2017). At least for young children, unstructured leisure time has been related to positive cognitive [Page 472]development. Children who spend more time in self-directed play are more likely to show high levels of self-directed executive function—that is, the ability to direct their own thoughts and behaviors to achieve a self-selected goal (Barker et al., 2014). Just as younger children need free time to play, adolescents need some time just to hang out with peers. This allows them to continue to develop an identity separate from their parents and to learn how to manage themselves with their peers. Although teens need this opportunity, their parents are often concerned that unsupervised time spent with peers will lead to risky or negative behaviors. There is some basis for their concern because during such time the likelihood of criminal behavior, teen sexuality, and drug and alcohol use increases (Lee, Lewis, Kataoka, Schenke, & Vandell, 2018). For instance, when teens have delinquent friends, the more free time they have to hang out with them, the more likely they are to take part in criminal behavior (Svensson & Oberwittler, 2010). The challenge for parents is to provide teens with an appropriate balance of freedom and parental monitoring so they develop a sense of autonomy but are protected from most major risks. Typically, as teens get older, parents increasingly allow them to spend more time away from home in unstructured time with peers, but parental supervision may be especially important for early-maturing teens who spend their time with older peers, as discussed in Chapter 6 (Bravender, 2015).

A good match between a mentor and mentee in a program is more likely to produce positive outcomes. a. True b. False

a

According to a growing body of research, which has been linked to engagement in and access to the natural environments? a. well-being b. social learning c. creativity d. emotional learning

a

Composting would help students learn about which subject matter? a. science b. english c. math d. sports

a

natural mentor

A mentoring relationship between an adult and child that develops spontaneously rather than through a formal program.

What impact does the natural world environment have on symptoms of ADHD? a. The natural world environment is associated with an increase in the symptoms of ADHD b. Children in the natural world are more likely to experience symptoms of ADHD c. ADHD symptoms manifest more fully in the natural world environment each day d. Exposure to the natural world environment has been shown to decrease symptoms of ADHD

d

Which concept has a primary focus on helping individuals reach their full potential? a. spatial intelligence b. natural mentors c. emotional learning d. positive youth development

d

Media, Cognitive Development, and Academic Achievement

Not all television viewing has the same effect on children's development. There is evidence that educational TV improves cognitive functioning and academic performance for some children, while entertainment TV makes academic performance worse. In this section, we first describe how electronic media affects cognitive development for infants and toddlers. We then examine how educational media and entertainment media have different effects on cognitive development and academic achievement of children and teens. Media Use in Infancy Parents are increasingly providing their infants and toddlers with electronic media, and many believe they are doing so for educational reasons (Rideout, 2017). However, although educational television has been shown to promote cognitive development [Page 478]in older children, there is little evidence that TV or videos of any kind are beneficial to infants and toddlers (Radesky, Schumacher, & Zuckerman, 2015). One reason is that parents talk less to their children when watching these programs with them, and the more they watch programming with their babies, the less language they use during free play when the program is off (Lavigne, Hanson, & Anderson, 2015; Pempek, Demers, Hanson, Kirkorian, & Anderson, 2011). In one study, 1-year-olds who watched an educational video designed to promote language development did not have better language development than babies who did not watch the video. What did predict vocabulary use and understanding was how much adults read to the infants (Robb, Richert, & Wartella, 2009). In another study, parent engagement with the baby and the video determined how much the baby learned from watching the video. The more engaged the parent was, the more the baby learned (Fender, Richert, Robb, & Wartella, 2010). In addition to programming specifically directed at infants and toddlers, children under age 3 are exposed to an average of 5-1/2 hours a day of background television (Lapierre, Piotrowski, & Linebarger, 2012). Forty-two percent of families with young children have the TV on all or most of the time, even if no one is watching it (Rideout, 2017), and simply having a TV playing in the background can be detrimental to young children's cognitive development. Although toddlers usually will not continue to watch shows they don't understand, TV is designed to grab a viewer's attention with techniques that work on young children as well as on adults. Think about being in a room or a restaurant where a TV is on that you are not even watching. Do you find your eyes drawn to the TV over and over again, distracting you from your conversation or other activities? Try Active Learning: Background TV to see how often this happens to you. The same appears to be true for infants and toddlers, to the detriment of their ability to develop their play (Anderson & Hanson, 2013; Setliff & Courage, 2011). Infants and toddlers will look at background TV over 25 times during a 30-minute show, disrupting play and social interactions that are crucial for optimal cognitive development in the early years (Schmidt, Pempek, Kirkorian, Lund, & Anderson, 2008). The more adult-focused background TV they are exposed to at age 1, the lower children's cognitive functioning is at age 4 (Barr, Lauricella, Zack, & Calvert, 2010). Clearly, background TV can be detrimental to young children's cognitive development in several different ways. Today, even infants and toddlers are focusing their attention on mobile media devices. Table 14.1 shows how much of each type of media young children are using. You might think that toddlers would learn more from interacting with touchscreens [Page 479]than from simply watching videos, but for children under age 3, tasks learned via touchscreens do not generalize to an understanding of or ability to perform the same task with real objects (Moser et al., 2015). What does it mean for cognitive development when a 2-year-old can assemble a six-piece puzzle on a screen but has no idea what a real puzzle is? The more that infants use touchscreens, the more likely they are to have sleep problems, and adequate sleep is a prerequisite for optimal cognitive development at this age (Cheung, Bedford, Saez De Urabain, Karmiloff-Smith, & Smith, 2017). Also, the more they use mobile devices, the more likely they are to have language delays (AAP News, 2017). The reasons behind this finding are not yet clear. We need to know much more about what underlies the relation between this type of media use and language outcomes. New technologies such as Internet-connected toys, virtual reality, and voice-activated assistants are making their way into homes (Rideout, 2017). We can only guess at this point about what impact they are likely to have on infants and toddlers.

Sexting

Sending nude or seminude pictures of oneself online.

What impact does background TV have on young children? a. Young children will be distracted by background TV about 25 times during a 30-minute show, disrupting their play and social interactions b. Young children do not pay any attention to background TV, but continue to be involved in their play and social interactions that are crucial c. Background TV is associated with an increase in spatial intelligence in young children adding to their play and social interactions d. Background TV is associated with narcissism and self-confidence issues in young children by disrupting their social interactions

a

When children diagnosed with ADHD play outdoors, their symptoms are reduced. a. true b. false

a

Which concept refers to the ability to understand the underlying purposes and messages of all types of media? a. media literacy b. prosocial behavior c. self-regulation d. social learning

a

Which has research determined has the greatest link with obesity? a. television viewing b. selfies c. video games d. social media

a

Which has the grant allowed the children's center to be able to continue to offer? a. nutrition education b. self-esteem c. extracurriculars d. neurodiversity

a

Which individual is more likely to experience aggressive thoughts and feelings? a. Alejandro plays violent video games with his friends b. Katya enjoys hanging out with her friends c. Jamal likes to play sports, like football and basketball d. Sonya plays board games with her friends

a

Connor is working with his teacher in the school garden. Every day they record how the tomato plants are doing. They measure the height and count the flowers and tomatoes on each plant. This helps Connor understand ______. a. interscholastic b. math skills c. supplements d. synaptogenesis

b

Creative activities are the most popular activities that children take part in. a. True b. False

b

The symptoms of ADHD are increased by exposure to the natural world. a. True b. False

b

Watching videos designed to improve language development results in larger vocabularies for the babies who watch them. a. true b. false

b

Shu talks to his baby wherever they go. He explains what is happening and what they are doing. In the evening, he makes sure to read books before naps and bedtime. Which is Shu doing for his infant? a. promoting motor function b. decreasing protoconversation c. promoting language development d. decreasing general intelligence

c

Which infant would be predicted to have more vocabulary use? a. Carter watches videos every day b. Aaliyah plays with her screen toy c. Jamal's mother reads to him every day d. Gabrielle's father tickles her toes

c

Which situation exemplifies one of the goals Richard Louv proposed for all children? a. Olivia is a very empathetic person b. Andrew suffered a concussion during hockey practice c. Malek is volunteering at his local community park d. Janet is multitasking with social media and her homework

c

Although watching many entertainment programs is related to children's aggression, watching educational programs is not. a. true b. false

b

Listening to classical music will make you more intelligent. a. true b. false

b

Which concept is the key to developing language in infants? a. motor function b. engagement c. videos d. hippocampus

b

Which has increased the likelihood that children will request vegetables in their diet? a. self-efficacy b. school gardens c. media literacy d. Sesame Street

b

About how many coaches of children under the age of 14 have training in how to motivate children? a. 1 in 4 b. 1 in 10 c. 1 in 5 d. 1 in 7

c

Increases in the effectiveness of mentor mentee relationships occur when the mentor has ______. a. other mentees in one large group b. children of their own c. interaction with the child's parents too d. interaction within the school setting

c

Evidence has shown that violent video games ______. a. decreases aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions b. increases aggressive actions but decreases aggressive feelings c. increases aggressive thoughts but decreases aggressive actions d. increases aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions

d

Keisha, an adolescent, has just gotten home from school. She has a bit of homework to do but she also wants to get on her social media accounts and listen to music. She decides that she can do all of these at once. The next day, she finds that she did not score very well on her homework. Which factor was a detriment to Keisha's homework? a. video games b. media literacy c. social learning d. multitasking

d

Only 1 in 5 coaches receives ______. a. self-efficacy understanding to aid coaching b. emotional learning to work with children c. developmental assets to aid their coaching d. adequate training to properly motivate children

d

Which activity is an example of a creative endeavor which helps expression of emotions and thoughts? a. art b. multitasking c. soccer d. hockey

d

Which concept is composed of 40 of these which serve as building blocks for positive youth? a. self-esteem b. social learning c. self-regulation d. developmental assets

d

Which do young children learn the most from? a. handheld media use b. social media c. television media d. live interaction with people

d

Which individual is a nonparental adult who has a trusting relationship with a young person (not through a program) to promote that person's positive development? a. leader of a program b. sibling c. peer d. natural mentor

d

Which individual would be considered a natural mentor? a. Mr. Hernandez is paired with a youth in a local program b. Ms. Mohebbian works with youth everyday after school at a center c. Ms. Kanti facilitates a Big Sisters program in the evenings d. Mr. Chu has taken an interest in working with one of his students and their family

d

Media and Self-Concept

Although there are many influences on children as they develop their self-concept and build their self-esteem, the way they see themselves and the way they value themselves is certain to be affected by the media they use for so many hours each day. In [Page 485]this section, we discuss how media use relates to self-concept and self-esteem for young children and for minority and LGBTQ youth. We then discuss the phenomenon of the selfie and how it relates to self-concept and narcissism.

14.4 The Role of Important Nonparental Adults

As we have explored the kinds of activities in which children and teens are involved, it is clear that these activities often involve adults other than the child's parents, including coaches, teachers, and employers. Young people's connection with adults who promote growth is an essential aspect of the positive youth development concept we described earlier. Although research on social relations has largely focused on the relationships that children and adolescents have with parents and peers, if we simply ask children or adolescents to name the people who are important to them, they spontaneously include on their lists a number of relatives and nonrelated adults (Farruggia, Bullen, & Davidson, 2013; Futch Ehrlich, Deutsch, Fox, Johnson, & Varga, 2016). Nonparental adults may provide a unique context for development. They have resources and life experiences to draw on that peers would not have, and adolescents are able to talk with them about topics they might not discuss with their parents out of embarrassment or fear of punishment (Sterrett, Jones, McKee, & Kincaid, 2011). A relationship with an important nonparental adult may be so influential because it has both a direct and an indirect effect. It can directly reduce the risk of problem behavior if the adult monitors and sanctions what the child does, but it also can have an indirect effect because support from this person helps the child resist peer influence toward negative behaviors. We discuss the role that athletic coaches can play in children's lives and then look at the role of natural and formal mentors.

14.3 Structured Time

Children and teens take part in a wide variety of activities outside of school. In this section we look at issues around the amount of time spent in organized activities as well as the benefits and risks of some of those activities.

Creative Activities

Creative activities, such as painting, music, dance, and drama, are avenues for the expression of thoughts and emotions for people of all ages. Creative activities are also an important part of positive youth development, helping children and adolescents express themselves and become involved with their peers both within and outside of their schools, with the supervision of caring and often skilled adults. Some researchers also have claimed that involvement in the arts, especially music, has broad effects on children's intelligence. These claims were based on a single study that found that college students who listened to classical music consequently did better on a task assessing spatial intelligence (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993), but the small and temporary effect found by this study has not been replicated by other researchers (Pietschnig, Voracek, & Formann, 2010). However, you'll remember from Chapter 8 that there is evidence for physiological changes in the brains of people who play instruments. When Ellen Winner and her colleagues examined abilities and brain function of children involved with musical training, they found that changes do occur, but they are very specific to the skills associated with playing music. For example, young musicians showed improved finger dexterity and rhythmic abilities, along with further development in the corresponding parts of the brain, but they did not show any evidence of a broad increase in intelligence or other unrelated abilities (Hyde et al., 2009). Participating in arts programs at school can improve attendance, reduce behavioral problems, and improve academic performance, as well as help students develop self-management, interpersonal, and relational skills. It also gives students an outlet for self-expression and a mechanism for exploring their identity (Farrington et al., 2019). Art enrichment programs have helped low-income preschoolers become more prepared for school (Brown, Benedett, & Armistead, 2010), and helped English-language learners to further develop their reading ability (Rieg & Paquette, 2009). In addition, the arts provide opportunities for children to develop socioemotional and self-regulation skills they need for adjustment to school. Finally, the arts can reflect the cultural diversity of children involved in the program, promoting pride and self-confidence. For adolescents and older children, acting requires skills that are similar to, but more sophisticated than, those used by young children during fantasy play. Those who received acting training over the course of a year showed gains in theory of mind and empathy for other people (Goldstein & Winner, 2012). In theater programs, teens learn valuable lessons about understanding and managing emotions and find new ways to deal with frustration and to celebrate success together with others (Larson & Brown, 2007). Creating a play or a musical program can bring students from many different backgrounds together with a common goal. This helps to create strong bonds and a positive group identity, while the students draw on a variety of talents. Often they gain a new respect for the people they work with, regardless of their background. The public recognition that comes from a performance serves as a source of pride for those who take part in it. Goals of positive youth development, including exploration in a safe environment, a sense of connection to others, making a contribution to something worthwhile, and a feeling of competence, are all enhanced by involvement in the arts.

14.3 How do structured activities contribute to positive youth development?

Extracurricular activities are associated with positive benefits for children and teens and few are overscheduled and stressed by their participation. Positive youth development focuses on using positive activities and relationships to promote the potential young people have for change and growth. Well-supervised activities provide opportunities for achievement, socialization with peers and adults, and excitement shared with a group. Many children and teens are involved in organized sports, and this activity can promote academic achievement and self-esteem. However, organized sports may cause injuries, and children may be pressured to win. Creative activities promote interpersonal skills and social cognitive abilities. Many adolescents are employed, and this can have different effects depending on the nature of the employment and the reasons why the individual is working.

14.4 What relationships beyond immediate family and peers are important for social development?

Many children and adolescents have nonparental adults (both relatives and unrelated adults such as teachers and coaches) who are important in their lives. These adults can function as natural mentors. Having a mentor can benefit children's development or even act as a protective factor for those at risk. The Mastery Approach to Coaching program helps coaches do the best job of promoting the welfare of the children and teens under their supervision. Having a mentor through a formal mentoring program helps children if the programs are carefully planned and carried out. Success depends on creating a good match between mentor and child; providing intensive, ongoing training and support for the mentors; and having clear guidelines for the duration of the relationship and how often the mentor and protégé will meet.

Natural Mentors

Mentors are nonparental adults who have a trusting emotional relationship with a young person and offer guidance intended to promote the young person's positive development (DuBois & Karcher, 2013). We first describe the effects of having a natural mentor who becomes involved with a child spontaneously and then discuss the impact of mentors paired with a child or teen through a formal program. [Page 499]Having a natural mentor has been associated with higher levels of educational attainment and academic motivation, greater resilience in the face of racial discrimination, lower levels of anxiety and depression, higher levels of self-esteem, a more positive self-concept, feelings of competence, a sense of control over what happens in one's life, and better coping skills (Hurd, Sánchez, Zimmerman, & Caldwell, 2012; Hurd, Stoddard, Bauermeister, & Zimmerman, 2014; Hurd & Zimmerman, 2010; Sterrett et al., 2011; Wittrup et al., 2016). It also is associated with lower levels of negative outcomes such as conduct problems, substance use, and risky sexual behavior (Sterrett et al., 2011). As adults, those who had a natural mentor during adolescence or early adulthood had higher levels of academic achievement, higher income, and spent more time volunteering (Hagler & Rhodes, 2018). Although not every study has found these outcomes, research on natural mentors has been conducted on diverse adolescent populations from a variety of backgrounds and at different levels of perceived risk, and there is a pattern of support for each of these outcomes. We often think about the importance of nonparental adult mentors for teens who have few other sources of support, but teens who already have many resources are more likely to have a natural mentor than are teens without those resources (Bruce & Bridgeland, 2014). However, when those with few resources do develop a mentoring relationship with an adult, they are more likely to reap benefits than other teens, particularly if that mentor is a teacher (Erickson, McDonald, & Elder, 2009). Active Learning: Relationships With Nonparental Adults gives you an opportunity to think about the people who have filled the role of natural mentor in your life and the impact they have had on your development.

"Selfies" and Narcissism

More than 90% of teens take photos of themselves, called selfies, and post those photos online for others to see. Recall our discussion in Chapter 7 about the imaginary audience in adolescence and you may see that the selfie is another way that teens think about others looking at and thinking about them. Research has addressed the question of whether those who take and post selfies are more narcissistic than those who don't; in other words, do they have an inflated view of their own importance and seek admiration from others? In one study of people 18 to 34 years of age, results showed that narcissistic individuals are, in fact, more likely to take selfies, and the more they post selfies online the more narcissistic they become (Halpern, Valenzuela, & Katz, 2016). It is important that parents discuss with their adolescent some of the dangers, including the risk of having an accident when taking a selfie in a precarious situation such as near the edge of a cliff, or the consequences of posting inappropriate content. They can also promote adolescents' interest in taking photos of and showing interest in other people and not just themselves (Uhls, 2015).

14.2 What are the many ways children and teens use electronic media and what effects do they have on development?

One reason for the decline in outdoor activity is increasing use of electronic media. Heavy use of electronic media is associated with obesity because it replaces physical activity and may encourage overeating in front of the television or other device. Despite media reports to the contrary, no positive effects of electronic media use on cognitive development have been found for children under age 2. For older children, educational media can promote positive cognitive and social development, but entertainment TV has a negative effect on academic achievement. Violent media promotes aggressive thoughts and behavior, while prosocial messages in the media can have a positive effect. Social networking can enhance friendships and provide support, but there is a danger of adult predators when children and teens talk with people they don't know. Media can also affect children's self-concept. Minority and LGBTQ children may be hurt by stereotypes shown in the media. It is important to teach media literacy to help children understand how the media is trying to manipulate their thinking in subtle ways.

Which developmental assets are defined as the supports, opportunities, and relationships adolescents need across their lives? a. external b. creative c. internal d. emotional

A

The World of Work

As children reach adolescence, paid work takes over some of what was leisure time in childhood. This can be informal work for neighbors or friends or more formal employment. About 23% of teens are employed during the school year, and these teens are working an average of 3-1/2 hours per weekday and 5-1/2 hours each weekend day [Page 496](U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2019a). We may think that having work experience while a teen is good for a young person, but unless the work is tied to the development of school-related skills, evidence that employment promotes positive development for teenagers is mixed. Teens who work more than 20 hours per week are more likely to decrease their engagement with school, take part in fewer extracurricular activities, and exhibit more problem behaviors such as substance use and delinquency. However, teens who work fewer than 20 hours do not differ academically or socially from those who do not work (Green & Jaquess, 2015; Monahan, Lee, & Steinberg, 2011). One possible explanation for the difference in school engagement may be that those who work long hours prefer work to school, not that they have less time for schoolwork as a result of working. If this were the case, it would mean that the academic disengagement resulted in longer work hours rather than the other way around (Staff, Schulenberg, & Bachman, 2010). The effect of work on school achievement appears to be different for teens from low-income and minority families. Fewer of these students are employed, but the ones who are tend to work longer hours. For these students, working may not be a choice, but rather a financial necessity to help their families or to save for their future education. Low-income students who plan to go to college are more likely to work 20 or more hours per week than college-bound students from more affluent families (Rocheleau, 2015). Whereas working longer hours is related to lower GPAs for White and Asian American students, especially those from high-income families, it is not the same disadvantage for Hispanic and African American teens and those from low-income families (Bachman, Staff, O'Malley, & Freedman-Doan, 2013). Because finding employment is more difficult for these students, the ones who are employed may be those who are less likely to have problem behaviors. And because their employment is a way to save money for educational purposes, they are less likely to let it interfere with their academic achievement. Mortimer (2010) has argued that employment does not in itself produce positive or negative effects, but rather teens from different backgrounds and with different types of motivation choose different types of employment that have different consequences for their development. In a national longitudinal study, four patterns of teen employment were identified, as shown in Table 14.2. Those teen workers who were identified as steady or occasional workers came from higher socioeconomic status and were more invested in school. Their work was seen as a sideline or as a way to make money for further education. These adolescents were more likely to graduate [Page 497]college. The teens who were most invested in their jobs, working continuously for more than 20 hours per week, came from lower socioeconomic status and saw their jobs as opportunities for learning job-related skills that would help them later in life. They were more likely to attend community colleges and vocational schools and to move quickly into career jobs. Those who worked sporadically—that is, they worked more than 20 hours per week but were not consistently employed—had the most problem behaviors and were most likely to be unemployed after finishing high school. Therefore, although work itself affects teens' development, the nature of the work they take on is shaped by the students' background and motivations. We must be careful when we attribute certain effects, such as school dropout, to work itself.

Concussions

There is greater awareness today of the long-term effects of one particular type of sports injury: concussion. Concussions are traumatic brain injuries that change the way the brain functions and may result in headache, memory loss, and confusion (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2017a). A sharp blow to the head makes the brain shake inside the skull, causing the injury. One in five adolescents, both males and females, who play at least one sport report that they have had at least one diagnosed concussion in their lifetime (Veliz, McCabe, Eckner, & Schulenberg, 2017). Almost half of the sports-related concussions seen in the emergency room occur in children ages 12 to 15 (see Figure 14.5). In sports that both boys and girls play, such as soccer, lacrosse, and basketball, girls are proportionately more likely to suffer a concussion than boys (Ferguson et al., 2013). The reason for this gender difference is not clear. A biomechanical difference may make females more vulnerable, or it could be something to do with the way the game itself is played. Did you know that women lacrosse players are not required to wear helmets, while male players are? (Ferguson et al., 2013). It is not always easy to tell whether someone has had a concussion but if a concussion is suspected, the child or adolescent should be seen by a qualified health care professional who is experienced in evaluating concussions to determine whether the child can return to normal daily activities (CDC, 2015a). In response to the growing concern regarding concussions, all 50 states have Return-to-Play laws that specify steps that must be taken when a child experiences a concussion, and a number of health organizations have issued guidelines for the after-care of an incident (CDC, 2015a). Following a concussion, the brain needs time to heal. Many coaches recognize the major signs of a concussion, including the fact that concussions do not always cause unconsciousness, but do not know some of the softer signs, including vision problems, sensitivity to light and sound, sleep problems, and nausea (Sarmiento, Donnell, & Hoffman, 2017). While most coaches agree they need more training in how to prevent sports injuries, many are unable to get it due to the expense, lack of time, or unavailability of local training programs (Mickalide & Hansen, 2012). One effort to overcome these barriers is an online course called HEADS UP to Youth Sports, offered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020b). Although continuing to educate players and adults about the nature and consequences of concussions is important, efforts also need to be made to change the culture of sports that encourages young athletes to play through their pain.

Aggression and Prosocial Behavior

We have known since Bandura's early research described in Chapter 2 that children will imitate the aggressive behavior they see in film, yet aggressive behavior is very prevalent in children's media. In one survey of television programming, 60% of shows had some amount of physical violence. Children's television, including cartoons, had the most violence, but all G-rated movies had some violence (Wilson, 2008). In 2009, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) reaffirmed its policy statement that media violence "can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, nightmares, and fear of being harmed," and in 2016 the organization expanded its concern to virtual violence, stating "first-person shooter games, in which killing others is the central theme, are not appropriate for any children" (AAP, 2016b). There is a great deal of evidence that watching violence or playing violent video games promotes aggressive behavior, aggressive thoughts, and aggressive emotions in young viewers, while it decreases empathy and prosocial behavior (Anderson et al., 2017; Bushman, Gollwitzer, & Cruz, 2015; Kirsh, 2012). Results of longitudinal studies have shown that viewing violent television at ages 2 to 5 was linked with greater aggression at ages 7 to 10 (Christakis & Zimmerman, 2007). Third- through fifth-grade children who were exposed to more violent media early in the school year showed higher levels of physical, verbal, and relational aggression 5 months later (Gentile, Coyne, & Walsh, 2011). This relationship has been found for teens as well. Over a 2-year period, the pattern of aggression shown by high school students in Germany followed the same pattern as their use of violent media. In this case, teens who reduced their use of violent media also showed decreased aggression (Krahé, Busching, & Möller, 2012). For teens, even listening to music with aggressive content has been related to increased levels of aggression over time (Coyne & Padilla-Walker, 2015). Violent video games increase aggressive tendencies even more than TV because players are acting out the violence rather than just viewing it (Polman, de Castro, & van Aken, 2008). When the player identifies with and acts out the role of the "shooter," and when there is more blood in the game, these effects appear to be even stronger (Barlett, Harris, & Bruey, 2008; Konijn, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007). Although there is some evidence that children who are already more hostile and aggressive are more likely than others to be further affected by playing violent video games, it appears that even children who do not fit this profile become more violent. In one study, the least hostile children who played video games got into more fights than the most hostile children who did not (Gentile & Anderson, 2003). Parents can limit the impact of violent media by talking with children about what they are watching, setting limits on how much and what the child watches, and watching TV or playing video games together while also discussing the content with the child. When parents were taught to use these approaches, children watched less media, viewed fewer violent shows, and their level of aggression decreased (Gentile et al., 2014). Media can also set a model for positive thoughts and behavior. Research has shown that positive programming can be related to children's prosocial behavior such as helping, sharing, and cooperation, as well as empathic concern for others and less aggression (Coyne et al., 2018). A classic television program, Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood, was designed to support the healthy social and emotional development of children, [Page 483]and the show had a remarkable effect on millions of children in the 33 years it was on the air. Mr. Rogers simply faced the camera and spoke with gentleness and sincerity as though he were talking to a single child. Studies done early in the history of this program found that watching Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood increased young children's positive peer interactions, ability to deal with fear and anger, and ability to delay gratification (Cantor, Sparks, & Hoffner, 1988; Coates, Pusser, & Goodman, 1976; Friedrich & Stein, 1973). You may be more familiar with recent programming such as Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, Angelina Ballerina, Bubble Guppies, or Callou that also focus on positive values such as friendship, caring and sharing, having goals, and dealing with emotions, both positive and negative. A recent study in which preschoolers watched 10 episodes of Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood over a 2-week period showed higher levels of empathy, self-efficacy, and emotion recognition, especially when parents talked with their children about what they were watching on television and made positive comments about what they saw (Rasmussen et al., 2016). One way to determine whether TV shows promote social and emotional learning is to look at whether characters show cooperation, helping, and nonviolent resolution of conflicts. Another is to see whether they name their own emotions and those of others, and whether they use techniques such as deep breathing to control their emotions. Finally, we can note whether characters take part in active decision-making processes, such as brainstorming and looking ahead at possible consequences. Children can learn from seeing these types of social and emotional skills demonstrated in the shows they watch (Christensen & Myford, 2014). Even with all the potential for positive effects associated with educational programming, it still can have its risks. Although children who watched more educational programming were more prosocial in their interactions 2 years later, children who watched more educational shows were also more likely than other children to take part in relational aggression (for example, "We don't want to play with you!"). The researchers who conducted this study say that even educational shows model this type of aggressive behavior, although they usually show the characters making up by the end of the show. They speculate that the problem is that preschool children do not understand the storyline in the same way that adults do. They don't connect the positive resolution at the end of the program with the earlier aggression, so they only see the relational aggression as a model to imitate (Ostrov, Gentile, & Mullins, 2013).

Imani makes sure that her young children are kept busy with after school programs and organized extracurriculars. She wants to make sure that they are busy and getting ahead as much as possible. Her children do not have much time for unstructured play. Which area of their development could this be hurting? a. self-directed executive function b. aggression c. multitasking abilities d. spatial intelligence

a

What impact do motor skills have on organized sports? a. Children's motor skills are developed enough to play organized sports around age 6 b. Motor skill development aids the imitation needed to understand the rules of organized sports c. Motor skill development happens as a result of playing organized sports d. Children's motor skills are developed around the age 10 to begin playing organized sports

a

What impact does unstructured leisure time have on young children? a. Young children have shown a decrease in self-efficacy associated with unstructured leisure time b. Young children have a deficit in developmental assets due to unstructured leisure time c. Unstructured leisure time has been linked to positive cognitive development in young children d. Unstructured leisure time has been associated with narcissistic tendencies in young children

c

Mei is coaching a girls' soccer team this year. She wanted to be the best possible influence on the girls so she took a course to help her understand child development. She learned that in order to get the most from her players she should say something positive about a play, then give instructions on how to improve, and follow that up with encouragement. Which has Mei learned about? a. emotional learning b. external developmental assets c. the positive sandwich d. empathy

c`

Media and Social Development

Different forms of media have very different effects on social development. In this section, we discuss the impact of video games and television on aggression and prosocial behavior. We then discuss social media, texting, and other ways children and teens incorporate media into their social relationships.

The Amount of Scheduled Time

Extracurricular activities can be positive experiences for children because the children can pursue things that interest them, acquire skills, interact with helpful adults, and make new friends (Oberle, Ji, Guhn, Schonert-Reichl, & Gadermann, 2019). Almost 60% of children between 6 and 18 years of age take part in at least one after-school activity, including 47% of boys and 36% of girls who take part in sports, 26% of boys and 31% of girls who take part in clubs, 25% of boys and 36% of girls who take lessons, and 54% who attend religious activities at least once a month (Knop & Siebens, 2018; U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). When children and adolescents ages 9 through 19 were asked to describe why they participated in activities such as sports, after-school programs, clubs, and religious youth groups, the reasons they gave included enjoyment and excitement, encouragement and support from parents and friends, opportunities to challenge themselves and build skills, and social interactions with others. In most cases it appears that children and adolescents have their own internal motivations for seeking out and participating in these experiences. Michael Thompson, author of The Pressured Child, said, "As a general principle, there is a line between a highly enriched, interesting, growth-promoting childhood and an overscheduled childhood. And nobody knows where that line is" (Feller, 2013). Although some people claim that children are doing too much, research has shown that relatively few children appear to be overscheduled with organized activities, and only 15% of parents think their children's schedule is too hectic (Pew Research Center, 2015a). Figure 14.3 shows how children's activity has changed between 1998 and 2014. Are you surprised by how little change there has been over that period of time?

Positive Youth Development

In Chapter 1, we introduced a way of thinking about development that adds a great deal to our understanding of the role that activities play in the lives of young people. This approach is called positive youth development (PYD) because its primary focus is on finding ways to help young people reach their full potential. Although PYD does not deny that many young people face various challenges, it does not focus on deficit and stress. Instead, PYD sees childhood and adolescence as a time full of potential and growth and strives to identify the people, contexts, circumstances, and activities that use that potential to help youth grow in the most healthy and positive way (Sanders & Munford, 2014; Youth.gov, n.d.). When organizations and communities give young people the chance to exercise leadership, build their skills, and engage in positive and productive activities, youth develop the building blocks they need to grow into healthy, happy, self-sufficient adults. Goals for positive youth development have been described as the five Cs: competence, confidence, connection, care/compassion, and character—all of which lead to a sixth C: contribution to the community (Erdem, DuBois, Larose, De Wit, & Lipman, 2016). The Search Institute in Minneapolis has identified a set of 40 developmental assets that serve as the building blocks for positive youth development. It defines external developmental assets as "[t]he supports, opportunities, and relationships young people need across all aspects of their lives" and internal developmental assets as "[t]he personal skills, commitments, and values they need to make good choices, take responsibility for their own lives, and be independent and fulfilled" (Search Institute, n.d.). Constructive use of time is one of the sets of external assets they have identified, and this can include creative activities such as lessons or participation in music, theater, or other arts; youth programs in the community; membership in a religious institution; and time spent at home rather than just hanging out with friends with nothing special to do. The quality of these different activities can affect the outcomes for the youth involved, but successful programs all seem to have the following three characteristics: 1. Positive interaction with an adult that continues for at least 1 year 2. Development of real-world life skills 3. Involvement in and leadership of activities valued by the child's community (Mueller et al., 2011; Ramey & Rose-Krasnor, 2012). Involvement in extracurricular activities is related to a number of positive outcomes for children and teens, including higher levels of achievement in school (Haghighat & Knifsend, 2019), less violent behavior (Eisman, Lee, Hsieh, Stoddard, & Zimmerman, 2018), and more positive general and academic self-concept (Modecki, Blomfield Neira, & Barber, 2018). Different types of activities contribute to different aspects of development or contribute in different ways. For instance, older children [Page 490]and teens who received acting training over the course of a year showed gains in social cognition (Goldstein & Winner, 2012). Ninth graders who had been involved with sports in seventh or eighth grade felt more competent in school and valued education more highly than those who did not, and those who took part in the arts or school clubs felt more competent and also earned higher grades (Im, Hughes, Cao, & Kwok, 2016). In one study of adolescents at risk of academic failure, those who were involved in multiple activities, including sports activities, school clubs, and volunteering, were three times as likely to graduate high school and go on to college as similar at-risk students who did not have this level of involvement. In comparison, vulnerable youth who spent time working in paid employment and simply watching television or hanging out with friends were less likely to go on to postsecondary education (Peck, Roeser, Zarrett, & Eccles, 2008). Participation in service-oriented activities in the community has an impact on a wide variety of academic outcomes, including "subject matter learning, standardized test performance, school attendance, earned grades, motivation for learning, and engagement in school" (Furco, 2013, p. 11).

Media Use, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem

In addition to enhancing social and emotional development, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood was designed to make children feel loved and to enhance their self-esteem. For many years, Fred Rogers (better known by his television name of Mister Rogers) would face the camera and say things like "I like you just the way you are," or "There's only one person in the world like you," or "You've made this day a special day for me by just your being you" (Tuttle, 2019). Although self-esteem can be raised by viewing shows such as Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood, we know that there are many ways in which TV can be harmful to the self-esteem of children and teens. Different forms of media frequently portray gender norms and expectations in a very narrow, stereotypical way, and repeated exposure to these portrayals can influence how adolescents see themselves. Women are frequently portrayed in movies, video games, ads, and television shows as dependent upon men and secondary to them, while male characters are shown as independent and in charge of the situation. Research with undergraduate men in the United States found that men's media use was associated with more traditional beliefs about male roles, and that viewing reality TV and sports had a particularly powerful influence on how they thought about gender roles (Giaccardi, Ward, Seabrook, Manago, & Lippman, 2016). Adolescents who frequently watch television programs with romantic content (for example, soap operas, dating competition shows, reality shows, and primetime romantic dramas) learn from their television viewing that dating is a gendered process that has prescribed roles for males and females (Rivadeneyra & Lebo, 2008). Women are depicted as passive sexual objects who are valued for their youth and beauty and men as dominant and powerful individuals with sex being the defining characteristic of their masculinity. Sex is shown as casual, abundant, and without consequences. Incorporating these characteristics into how you see yourself as a sexual being can place both male and female adolescents at risk from their sexual behavior. The impact of media on the self-concept of minority youngsters has received less attention. Television and movies have tended to portray White, non-Latino characters more often than minorities, and when minorities are presented in the media, they are often shown in stereotypical ways. Minority characters are frequently portrayed as criminals, sex objects, and people of lower status (Martins & Harrison, 2012; Ross, 2019). Minority youth are greater consumers of media than nonminorities (Child Trends, 2014a), so these depictions affect how they see themselves and their life chances (The Opportunity Agenda, 2011). As we have described before in this book, when ideas are incorporated into your self-image they can become self-fulfilling prophecies, and you begin to behave in ways that live up to, or down to, the expectations you have. One study of 7- to 12-year-olds found that television viewing was negatively related to self-esteem in White and Black girls and Black boys, but not in White boys (Martins & Harrison, 2012). One explanation for this finding is that exposure to the negative portrayal of women in general and Black men in particular lowers the self-esteem of these groups, while the positive portrayal of White men boosts the self-esteem of White boys. A number of years ago, Clark (1969) proposed that the portrayal of minorities on television moves from nonrepresentation (the group is excluded), to ridicule (the group is portrayed, but primarily as objects of derisive humor), to regulation (the group is portrayed in limited but socially acceptable roles), to respect (the group is shown in both positive and negative roles). In recent years, the portrayal of LGBT characters in the media appears to be moving through these same stages. A recent report from the GLAAD Media Institute (2019-2020) found that 10.2% of the regular characters in prime-time network programs during the 2019-2020 season were gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender. The number of LGBTQ characters in original series on Amazon, Hulu, and Netflix also continues to climb from year to year. The portrayal of gender-variant characters is particularly important for adolescent viewers who may be dealing with gender identity issues but who lack real-life role models and turn to the media for guidance about how to conduct themselves. As teens get older, improvement in critical thinking and social perspective-taking makes them more resistant to negative [Page 486]stereotypical portrayals that they see in the media (Hall & Smith, 2012). A teen's background, the kind of programming they watch, and their reactions to it all play a role in the way it affects how they see and feel about themselves.

Organized Sports

In the United States, more children take part in sports than in any other kind of activity. The kinds of experience children have in sports can vary widely. They can participate in highly structured, adult-supervised, competitive activities, or they can play in informal activities organized by the children themselves that only loosely follow a set of rules. They can join team sports like football, basketball, or hockey, or pursue individual sports like track, swimming, or gymnastics. Participation in sports helps children reach the recommended daily 60 minutes of moderate or vigorous activities. Parents of children who participate in organized sports see benefits for their child's physical and mental health and social life. Parents report that children learn about discipline and dedication and build skills they can use in their future schooling or career (NPR/Robert Woods Johnson Foundation/Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 2015). However, children need to be developmentally ready to participate in particular sports. Before the age of 6, most children do not have the basic motor skills needed for organized sports, so activities that focus on skills like running, throwing, and catching are more age-appropriate. At this age, competition should be avoided. By age 6, children have the basic skills for simple organized sports, although they lack the hand-eye coordination required for complex skills. At this age they may not be good at remembering complex rules or strategies, so it is better to focus on learning new skills and participating, rather than winning. By ages 10 to 12, most children are ready for sports like football or basketball that depend upon complex skills. As children begin to go through puberty, some will be taller, heavier, and stronger than others, so children this age should be matched by physical ability whenever possible. Because the growth spurt that occurs in early adolescence can affect a child's balance and coordination, this also needs to be taken into account (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2019b). When we hear stories about highly skilled adult athletes, they often mention that the individual began training in the sport at a very young age, but there is real debate within athletics about the value of early and intensive specialized training in a specific sport. Children who show athletic promise in grade school or high school often get the message from coaches and others that they should specialize in one sport so they can develop their talent to its full potential, but this type of specialization is associated with more injuries during the young person's athletic career (American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, 2019). Injuries can result from a single incident or accident, but overuse injuries occur when young athletes perform the same activity repeatedly, such as pitching a baseball or swinging a tennis racket, without [Page 491]adequate rest time for the body to recover (Paterno, Taylor-Haas, Myer, & Hewett, 2013). In one study, almost half of high school athletes who had specialized in a single sport reported they had sustained an injury, compared to about one-quarter of athletes who participated in multiple sports, and many college athletes say they wish they had been more well-rounded in their sports activities when they were younger (The Aspen Institute, 2016). Concentration on a single sport can also lead to eventual burnout. Some experts believe more generalized participation earlier in childhood, with a transfer of skills from one sport to another, and more specialized training later in adolescence is a better alternative than an intensive early focus on a single sport (DiFiori et al., 2014). The dropout rate from childhood sports is a concern because we think of organized sports as a way to keep children physically active and to set a pattern of lifelong physical activity, but a widely cited statistic is that 70% of participants drop out by the age of 13 (Engle, 2004). On average, children play sports for 3 years, and they are most likely to quit during middle school (The Aspen Institute, 2019). Youth from low-income families are six times as likely to quit as those from families with more resources to support the fees and expenses connected with many sports (The Aspen Institute, 2020). About one-quarter of those who stop say it was no longer fun for them, while another 16% say they stopped because they or their parents were concerned about the possibility of injuries. Perhaps we could improve the retention rate if we listened more to what children are telling us about their experiences. Emphasizing skills, teamwork, and fun rather than winning may be a good way to put some of the spontaneity and joy back into organized sports for children. When players see their coaches as promoting a healthy lifestyle they say they enjoy being on the team more and are less likely to plan to drop out. When they see coaches as promoting fair play and respect for self and others they not only enjoy the sport more, but also have more positive self-esteem and report having more healthy behaviors (Van Hoye, Heuzé, Van den Broucke, & Sarrazin, 2016).

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have described some of the influences on children and teens that occur in contexts outside of the family and school. Positive youth development can be promoted through time spent in the natural world; involvement in the arts, sports, and other activities; and a connection with a caring adult. Although media use and teen employment can have positive effects, there are also risks for developmental outcomes. In the next chapter, we look at circumstances that can be a threat to the health and well-being of children and adolescents, but also look at how they deal with the stress in their lives and the resilience they can show in the face of adversity.

Sports safety

The health benefits of children's participation in sports must be balanced against the possibility that a child might be injured in the process. The issue of safety is not trivial. More than 3.5 million children under the age of 14 receive medical treatment for sports injuries each year (American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, 2017). Figure 14.4 shows the risk of various sports-related injuries. This risk increases as children get older, and at all ages it is greater for boys than girls (Wier, Miller, & Steiner, 2009). Of course, the sources of injury are different at different ages. For children 5-9 years old the greatest number of injuries come from playground activities and bicycling, while football and basketball are responsible for the greatest number of injuries in older children and teens (Rui, Ashman, & Akinseye, 2019). One-third of all children who play team sports suffer injuries that are serious enough to keep them off the field at least for a while, and some of these injuries have consequences that will last for the rest of their lives (Mickalide & Hansen, 2012). About one-third of child athletes believe they should play even while injured, and almost half of coaches say they are pressured by the parents of injured children to let the players back into the game (Mickalide & Hansen, 2012). In one study young hockey players had good knowledge about what they should do following a concussion injury, but three-quarters admitted that it is not what they would actually do. Even among players who had experienced a concussion in the past, fewer than half said they had followed the protocol for staying out of the game. When questioned about why they didn't follow the protocol, players admitted they simply had wanted to continue playing and they didn't want to disappoint their coach or their team (Mrazik, Perra, Brooks, & Naidu, 2015). Parents also may not be fully aware of the level of risk to which their children are exposed. In a nationally representative sample of parents, 86% agreed with the statement that injuries are "just part of the game," with fathers less likely than mothers to think that injuries could be avoided (Hart Research Associates, 2011, p. 5). There are, however, several ways to reduce the risk of injury when children are playing sports. They should have a physical exam before they take part in sports, and any medical issues, such as asthma, should be communicated to the coaches. Competitors should be fairly equally matched in size and weight. Adults should be sure players [Page 492]have a reasonable level of skills to participate safely and are matched by skill level, where appropriate. Children must use the right safety equipment for their sports, and they should warm up before practice or a game to prepare their bodies for the activity. Warming up helps reduce the risk of injury during the game itself, and practice helps children develop the skills they need to play well in addition to improving their physical condition so they play safely. Although many people believe that it is in the intensity of actual games that children are injured, most injuries actually occur during practice; therefore, it is just as important for children to take the preventive steps of warming up, wearing protective gear, and drinking plenty of fluids during practice as it is for a game (SafeKids Worldwide, 2020).

Mentorship Programs

There are more than 4.5 million children and teens in the United States who are in formal mentoring relationships (Congressional Research Service, 2019). These are established through programs in schools and through organizations such as Boys and Girls Clubs, or Big Brothers Big Sisters. What makes a formal mentoring relationship successful sounds very similar to what makes a positive parent-child relationship: closeness and warmth, consistency, and structure. Do you see the similarity to the description of authoritative parenting in Chapter 13?\ A meta-analysis of studies evaluating mentorship programs found medium to moderate effects of both community- and school-based programs in all areas studied: academic, cognitive, health, psychological, and social functioning. The youth in these programs reported feeling more support from adults and better relationships with parents, teachers, and peers (Raposa et al., 2019). The characteristics associated with the more successful programs appear in Table 14.3. Although adults who volunteer to be mentors have good intentions, that by itself is not enough to ensure that their relationship with a young person will have a positive impact. Creating a good match between the mentor and protégé that focuses on and is sensitive to the individual's developmental needs and interests are the ones most likely to result in positive outcomes (Erdem et al., 2016; Raposa et al., 2019). Providing intensive and ongoing training and support for the mentor, having both the mentor and the protégé fully commit to their relationship for a significant period of time, and having the mentors interact with the child's [Page 500]parents or peers are also likely to increase the positive effects of the program. However, when relationships fall short on these factors, they are often linked with a decrease in well-being for the child or teen, so it is important for mentors to fully understand the commitment they are making to their protégé. Table 14.3 Characteristics of successful mentoring programs. These characteristics involve planning for the program, preparing mentors for what they will do, and monitoring the progress of the mentor-protégé pair.

Ayla plays on the girls' lacrosse team. Recently after practice she started to feel a headache and dizziness. She told her mother who asked about practice. Ayla did have a pretty nasty collision on the field. Ayla's mother suspects she may have a(n) ______. a. concussion b. neck injury c. pulled muscle d. asthma attack

a

Jack and his friends get together online to play video games. They all like to play games where they are the first person shooter. They have strategies and teams, but the end result is each individual violently shooting other people. Which would most likely be increased due to playing these games? a. aggression b. rumination c. self-esteem d. depression

a

Most families do not monitor the amount of time their tweens and teens spend online. a. true b. false

a

Sports specialization at a young age is associated with more injuries during their athletic career. a. True b. False

a

Effects of Entertainment Media

Although educational media can have a positive effect on children's cognitive development and school achievement, entertainment media, which is the majority of viewing for school-age children, appears to have a negative effect (Common Sense Media, 2012). Particularly in the early years, when children are learning to read, school achievement declines as use of entertainment media increases (Schmidt & Anderson, 2007). Several explanations have been proposed for this link. The simplest is the displacement hypothesis; that is, media use displaces the time children and teens would otherwise be doing homework and other, more healthful activities. For example, when children use electronic media in their bedroom it displaces both reading time and sleeping time (Gentile, Berch, Choo, Khoo, & Walsh, 2017). A second possible reason for a link between media use and lower academic performance is that many children and teens are using a variety of types of media while they are doing their homework. About one in five teens has the TV on, texts, and/or uses social media while doing homework, and most believe it makes no difference in their ability to study (Rideout & Robb, 2019). In one study, students stayed on task less than 6 minutes before switching attention away from their schoolwork, most often due to electronic distraction. Those who used Facebook while doing their homework had lower GPAs (Rosen, Carrier, & Cheever, 2013). Earlier in this chapter we talked about the impact of background TV on younger children and, as we discussed in Chapter 7, the academic performance of older children can also be affected by the distraction of background TV even if they are not actively watching it. A third possible reason for a link between media use and poor academic performance is that children and teens are having more difficulty focusing attention on just one thing in depth because they have developed a shorter attention span as a result of multitasking with electronic media. As described in Chapter 7, teens who take part in more multitasking with media generally have more difficulty with inattention and distractibility (Baumgartner, van der Schuur, Lemmens, & te Poel, 2017; Moisala et al., 2016). In addition, correlational studies have linked violent media use with symptoms of ADHD (Beyens, Valkenburg, & Piotrowski, 2018), although the direction of effects in this case is not entirely clear. Do children with attention problems prefer to use electronic media, or does electronic media use cause attention difficulties? A large-scale, longitudinal study focused on video games carried out in Singapore found that children with attention problems played more video games, but playing video games contributed to even greater attention problems later on, so causality can move in both directions (Gentile, Swing, Lim, & Khoo, 2012).

14.1 How does unstructured time, including time spent in the natural world, affect children's development?

Around the world, children spend their free time in different ways. In some cultures parents require their children to do more academic work outside of school, but unstructured play promotes creativity and imagination for children. Although too much unsupervised time for teens may lead to problem behaviors, some amount of autonomy is necessary for developing identity. Free time can include time with the natural world. There has been concern about children's decreased involvement in the natural world because greater involvement is related to lower rates of obesity, an enhanced ability to pay attention, reduced stress, and a greater willingness to protect nature.

Athletic Coaches

Connecting children and adolescents to positive adult role models is often considered one of the benefits of participating in organized sports. For many young people, their [Page 498]coach becomes one of the important nonparental adults in their lives. Most adults who volunteer their time to coach organized youth activities have the children's best interests at heart, but many lack experience working with children and may not have a good understanding of child development. Only one in five coaches of teams for children under the age of 14 receives training in how to correctly motivate children (The Aspen Institute, 2016). Consequently, a coach might push a young player, thinking it will help the child develop skills or inspire a sense of accomplishment, but the child may just be looking for a way to have fun and spend some time with friends. Having a coach who is adequately trained to work with children is associated with keeping them in the sport. In one study, only 5% of children playing on teams with trained coaches failed to return for the next year, compared to 26% of children with coaches who had not received training (The Aspen Institute, 2016). The Mastery Approach to Coaching program was developed to help coaches create the best possible experiences for young athletes (Munsey, 2010a). Ronald Smith, one of the developers of this program, says, "The best way to maximize performance is by creating an environment in which athletes are having fun, are highly motivated, they're trying to improve, they're giving maximum effort, and you have a good relationship with them, so they're more likely to listen to what you tell them" (Munsey, 2010a, p. 58). To this end, the program promotes the "positive sandwich." When a player makes a mistake, the coach finds something positive about the play to comment on, then provides specific instructions on how to improve, and ends with positive encouragement. When this well-researched program has been implemented, it has resulted in a higher evaluation of the coaches by the team members, more enjoyment of the team as a group, an increase in self-esteem, less anxiety, and less likelihood of dropping out of the sport (Smoll & Smith, 2009).

Effects of Educational Media

From age 2 on, educational (but not entertainment) media does seem to affect learning in a positive way. Although there are many educational programs, Sesame Street has included a research component since the very beginning of its programming and, as a result, has more research on its effectiveness than any other program. See Journey of Research: Educational TV and Sesame Street for additional information about the history and effectiveness of Sesame Street. [Page 481]With the advent of new types of media, including mobile and interactive devices, there has been a flood of new educational apps aimed at young children. In a review of research on their educational effectiveness, the AAP Council on Communications and Media concluded that "most apps parents find under the 'educational' category in app stores have no such evidence of efficacy, target only rote academic skills, are not based on established curricula, and use little or no input from developmental specialists or educators" (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2016b, p. 7). Why do these apps fall so far short of their intended goals? As we saw with younger children, for electronic programs to be truly educational, an adult needs to be involved with preschool children while they are using them. Most commercially available apps do not provide these opportunities. The AAP report says that the best way for preschool children to learn is still through unstructured and social play and responsive interaction with an adult. The majority of school-age children and teens play video games, and on average they play almost 1-1/2 hours per day (Common Sense Media, 2015). Only 3% of boys and 17% of girls do not play video games (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). Teachers are using video games for instruction, and there is some evidence that they can be effective in improving children's learning. However, not all video games are the same, and the design of the game makes a difference in how effective it is at promoting learning; for instance, games that include individualized scaffolding, as described in Chapter 7, are more effective, and single-player noncompetitive and group-based competitive games are more effective than single-player competitive games in helping children learn (Clark, Tanner-Smith, & Killingsworth, 2016).

selfies

Photos of oneself taken with a mobile device and posted online.

Using Media for Communication

Teens are avid users of electronic media for communication, and the forms of communication are increasing exponentially. Teens stay in touch with friends by contacting [Page 484]them online, using text messaging, instant messaging, e-mailing, video chatting, blogging, playing interactive games together, and interacting with online social networking sites. The most popular sites in 2018 are shown in Figure 14.2.

Media and Physical Development

There has been a good deal of research that has linked television viewing with obesity (Zhang, Wu, Zhou, Lu, & Mao, 2016). Television viewing is related to weight because the more time children spend watching television, the less time they have for physical activities, the more advertisements promoting high-calorie but low-nutrition foods and beverages they see, and the more mindless eating they do while watching television (Robinson et al., 2017). Beyond the advertisements in television programs, product placement of food within shows promotes particular brands of food in a less obvious way (Boulos, Vikre, Oppenheimer, Chang, & Kanarek, 2012). Because watching more television appears to be related to greater problems with weight as children grow and develop, limiting their television viewing while they are still in their formative years should be helpful and healthful under any circumstances.

Taking lots of selfies is a sign of narcissism. a. true b. false

a

The least hostile children who play violent video games get into more fights than the most hostile children who don't. a. true b. false

a

Unstructured leisure time has been linked with which in young children? a. positive cognition b. developmental assets c. narcissism d. spatial intelligence

a

Which individual would be promoting language development in an infant? a. Marcy reads to her baby every day b. Kumar is hiding all of his baby's toys c. Carl puts Sesame Street on for his 6-month-old d. Aaliyah bought videos marketed to help learn language

a

Which is part of the America's Great Outdoors Initiative inspired by Louv's initiative to get children playing outside in the natural world? a. Build a base of outdoor education b. Build emotional learning with multitasking c. Increase empathy through social media d. Increase self-confidence through creativity

a

Which term is used for spontaneous relationship between a nonparental adult and a youth? a. natural mentor b. researcher c. mentor d. protege

a

Children who participate in organized sports develop skills they use to keep them physically active throughout their lifetime. a. true b. false

b

Children who watch educational television when they are preschoolers do better in English, math, and science in high school. a. true b. false

b

Many children and teens are overscheduled, spending most of their time after school in multiple organized activities like sports and music lessons. a. true b. false

b

Which is needed in order for apps and electronic programs to be truly educational when young children use them? a. self-regulation b. adult interaction c. curriculum d. creativity

b