Chapter 14 AP Euro

For centuries European contact with the outside world was limited to Northern Africa and Asia, what led them to voyage into the Atlantic? When did they begin doing this?

"God, glory, and gold" were the main motives that led Europeans to navigate and map out the world between 1500-1800. Many Europeans first sparked interest in this concept from hearing stories about fantasy lands such as in The Travels of John Mandeville. This book spoke of realms "filled with precious stones and gold," which was another factor besides the unknown that lured many Europeans to want to explore the world. There were also books made about Christian kingdoms, such as the kingdom of Prester John in Africa and another Christian kingdom in southern India, all of which were founded by Thomas, who was an apostle of Jesus. In addition, new opportunities for exploring the east rose with Mongol conquests disrupting the rule of the Muslims over Central Asia during the thirteenth century. Then, in the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turk conquests and the breakup of the Mongol Empire led Europeans to search for a new way to retrieve spices and other goods from Asia overseas. Many others explored the world to look for new areas of trade. Lastly, Europeans also wanted to "serve god and His majesty, to give light to those who were in darkness." This means that many wanted to convert people in different lands in order to spread the Christian faith and the belief in the Lord Jesus Christ.

What were the accomplishments of Bartholomew Dias? Vasco da Gama?

Bartholomew was a Portuguese sea captain who was able to successfully sail around the Cape of Good Hope, while Vasco da Gama was also a Portuguese sea captain who rounded the cape, then proceeded to stop along the coast of East Africa at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants. He then was able to obtain spices such as ginger and cinnamon by visiting the port of Calicut. This cargo "earned the investors a profit of several thousand percent."

When did talks of abolishing slavery begin? By whom? When did it finally end?

Because of slavery, Europe began to suffer from economic and political instability, as the importation of cheap manufactured goods from Europe undermined the local cottage industries, forcing many families into poverty. Africa was also affected as well, as warfare and violence broke out between Europe and Africa, when Europe continued to need a steady stream of slaves that they could export to plantations. Some Europeans also sympathized with African communities when they were depopulated and deprived of their youngest and strongest men and women. However, it was still not until in the 1770s, when the Society of Friends, otherwise known as the Quakers, began to exclude anyone who agreed and supported the idea of slavery from the church, did the anti-slavery views and outrage begin to grow. Finally, the radical stage of the French revolution in the 1790s officially abolished slavery, followed by the British in 1807. Yet, slavery continued in the United States until the Civil War of the 1860s.

Describe some of the improvements to shipbuilding that allowed Europeans to venture across the seas?

Not only were Europeans able to create new and improved maps, but they also improved ships by mastering the use of the axial rudder and combining lateen sails with a square rig, These improvements allowed ships to sail against the wind, carry many goods, and withhold cannons in order to engage in naval warfare.

What are some similarities between the Aztecs and the Inca?

Pachakuti divided his empire up into four quarters, each ruled by a governor, then provinces in these quarters, which were also ruled by governors. This was similar to the Aztec Empire, which was a collection of semi-independent city-states controlled by local lords who were under the rule of Moctezuma. The Inca also succeeded in construction, building roads, storage depots, rest houses, and bridges over waterways and ravines. The Aztecs also built public buildings, temples, houses, an aqueduct, and causeways of stone that linked the many islands to the mainland. After the arrival of the Spaniards, both the Aztec and the Inca suffered great losses from the outbreak of smallpox, then were defeated and conquered by the Spanish.

It is said the primary motives for European expansion were the "Three G's" - what are they?

The "Three G's" were the primary motives for European expansion, which are "God, glory, and gold."

What was the "price revolution" also sometimes called the "market revolution"?

The "price revolution," sometimes called the "market revolution," was the dramatic rise in prices that occurred throughout Europe during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

What group opposed the mistreatment of the Natives? Especially who can be attributed to ending the encomienda system?

The Dominican friars opposed the mistreatment of the Natives. Antón Montecino and Bartolomé de Las Casas were both huge advocates for the prevention and the vanquishing of the mistreatment of the Indians by the encomienda system.

By the mid-17th c (1600s) what happened to the Portuguese control of the coasts of Africa and India?

The Dutch seized most of the Portuguese's claims and forts along the coast of Africa and India and took control of most of the Portuguese trade across the Indian Ocean at the same time.

Why did the New World come to be nicknamed "America"?

The New World was nicknamed "America" because it was named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was a Floretine that accompanied several voyages to the land that Columbus described, while mapping the geography out.

When the British said "prescription without possession availeth nothing" what did they mean? How is this a clue to the British mindset of the colonization methods they used?

When the British said "prescription without possession availeth nothing,' they meant that Spain, who had put claims on all of North America, did not own a country just because they said so. This is a clue to the British mindset of the colonization methods they used because it shows their justification for taking over land already inhabited by natives or other countries.

What is a Boer? Where did they and the Dutch East India Company set up shop? Why this location?

A Boer is a Dutch farmer. They began to set up shop in areas outside of Cape Town because of the area's moderate climate and freedom from tropical diseases.

What is a Joint-Stock company? Which European power was the closest to being a capitalist economy? Why isn't it necessarily accurate to say that European nations operated as capitalists during this time, despite the fact that they were witnessing the growth of commercial capitalism?

A joint-stock company is a company or an association that raises capital by selling shares to individuals who receive dividends on their investments while a board of directors runs the company. Amsterdam was the closest power in Europe to being a capitalist economy. Despite the fact that Europe was witnessing the growth of commercial capitalism, most of the European economy depended on an agriculture system that had changed very little since the thirteenth century, so it is not accurate to say that European nations operated as capitalists during this time.

What replaced the encomienda system? How did it operate?

After the abolishment of the encomienda system, the Spanish built an administrative system based on viceroys to administer their new territories, dividing Spanish possessions into two units : New Spain and Peru. The viceroys who governed each unit served as the king's chief civil and military officers and were aided by advisory groups called audiencias, which functioned as supreme judicial bodies. Additionally, the Spanish built all of the trappings of the European society in the New World, including cathedrals, and operated a mass conversion of Indians to Christianity. Then, the Spanish Inquisition was established first in Peru in 1770, then in Mexico the following year.

What happened at the Battle of Plassey? What was the British East India Company, and what role would it play for the next century and a half?

At the Battle of Plassey, a British force of three-thousand men defeated a Mughal-led army that was ten times its size. Because of this victory, the British received the authority to impose and collect taxes on over 20 million people in the area surrounding Calcutta from the Mughal court. The British East India Company was founded by the English for the exploitation of trade with East and Southeast Asia and India. It had been founded as a joint-stock company in 1600. For the next century and a half, the company became involved in politics and acted as an agent of British imperialism in India. The expansion of their authority marked a major step in the transfer of all of the Indian subcontinent to the British East India Company, later becoming a colony under the British crown.

Explain a few major ways that life in Europe (the Old World) changed as European expansion continued over the 17th and 18th centuries? How did it affect the European mentality or their world view?

Because of the expansion to the outside world, European lifestyle was greatly affected by products such as new foods and drinks like chocolate, coffee, and tea. Chinese furniture and porcelain also became a new trend among the upper classes in Europe, while Chinese ideas would have an impact on intellectual attitudes. European expansion also created competition and increased tensions among European states, causing conflicts over cargoes coming from the New World and Asia. In addition, Anglo-Dutch and British-French rivalry over India and North America became a prominent, new pattern of worldwide warfare in the eighteenth century. Rivalries also led to state-sponsored privacy as governments authorized private captains to attack enemy shipping, then enabled them to keep a portion of the proceeds for themselves. Furthermore, Europe's world view was affected as they were able to create new maps that gave them an accurate depiction of the world with map projections, which let them represent the round surface of a sphere on a flat surface. Out of all of the map projections, the most famous was the Mercator, which showed the true shapes of landmasses, but only in a limited area, as the farther away from the equator, the less accurate the shapes became. Finally, the expansion by Europeans reinforced the idea that European civilizations and religion were inherently superior to the natives, and that they should be dominated.

Explain the role of Smallpox in conquering the New World. Be specific.

Because the Indians had no immunity to diseases such as smallpox, many tribes suffered a large amount of losses, including Tenochtitlán, making Hernán Cortés' conquest possible. In addition, after the Aztec Empire was conquered by the Spanish, the Aztec population was able to revolt and run the Spanish out of Mexico the following year. However, they were soon defeated by the smallpox epidemic, which enabled the Spanish to be able to take control of the empire once again. The Inca slo suffered the same fate as the Aztecs. Although these diseases made it much less difficult for the Spanish to claim the territories of the Indian tribes, the mortality rates resulted in a shortage of workers for the Europeans, leading them to import slaves from Africa.

Describe British and French relations with the Spanish and Portuguese in the New World. What happened? What was the "asiento"?

Both Spain and Portugal began to decline, forcing them to depend even more on the resources from their colonies in the New World. They also imposed strict mercantilist rules in hopes of keeping other countries out, however the British and French were too powerful to be excluded. For instance, the British cajoled Portugal into allowing them into Brazilian trade, then the French were the first to break into the Spanish Latin American market when the French Bourbons became kings of Spain at the start of the eighteenth century. After this, the British were able to interfere with the Spanish Latin American markets when they were granted the "asiento," which enabled them to transport 4,500 slaves a year to Spanish Latin America.

Japan was close to anarchy in the late 15th century. What does this mean? Who took control? How long did they stay in power?

By Japan being close to anarchy, this meant that there was disorder among society due to lack of recognition of authority. But, a powerful number of individuals, such as Tokugawa leyasu, who took the title of shogun, unified Japan once again. Tokugawa was the longest- lasting and most powerful shogun of all the Japanese shogunates. The Tokugawa rulers were able to stay in power until 1868, as they completed the restoration of central authority in Japan.

Between Protestants and Catholics, which had the higher missionary drive? Why do you suppose so many natives chose to convert to Christianity? What effects did this have on them?

Catholic missionaries had a higher missionary drive in the world outside of Europe. Due to the fact that missionaries and the politics of European countries were so powerful and influential on the New World, I can infer that many natives chose to convert to Christianity because they were pressured and had little to no choice against this immense power. When the natives were converted, they were taught trades and encouraged to grow crops, but these missions generally benefited the missionaries more than the Indians. European encroachment and colonization led to the decline in the culture, religion, and lifestyle of the native civilizations.

By the 17th century, how did the Chinese view themselves? How did they view the Europeans? What dynasty was in charge? What happened?

China was one of the most powerful and vast civilizations on earth by the 17th century. When the Portuguese fleet arrived in China, the Chinese thought little of the event. To the Chinese ruler, all other countries and their rulers were "young brothers'' of the Chinese emperor. The Chinese emperor was viewed as the "Son of Heaven." During this time period when the Portuguese dropped anchor at China, the Ming dynasty was in charge. However, in the 1630s, an epidemic erupted in China, killing and devastating the population, which then helped to spark a peasant revolt under the command of Li Zicheng. By 1644, Li and the peasants were able to occupy Beijing, when the last Ming emperor committed suicide by hanging himself on a tree. Then, the Manchus, who were farming and hunting people who lived northeast of China, defeated Li and his forces and conquered Beijing. From this, the Qing dynasty was created.

What happened to Christians in Japan? Why were the Dutch allowed to stay in Nagasaki? What were the conditions?

Christians in Japan were initially welcomed, and even had some success in converting the local population to join the Christian faith. But, when the missionaries interfered with local politics, Tokugawa expelled all missionaries and persecuted any Christians. For instance, in 1637, when a group of Christian peasants revolted on the island of Kyushu, they were bloodily suppressed. However, the Dutch were allowed to stay in Nagasaki because they had not allowed missionary activities to interfere with their trade interests. Yet, the Dutch were only allowed to dock at the Nagasaki harbor just once a year and could remain for only two or three months.

Did the Aztecs and the multiple dozens of other tribes in the New World get along with one another? How did this affect European settlement?

City-states and tribes such as Taxcala were tired of the oppressive rule of the Aztecs, which led to them creating alliances with the Spanish troops that were brought into the Americas from Europe. Hernán Cortés was the commander of this Spanish expedition. When the Spanish arrived in the Aztec Empire, the ruler, Moctezuma, thought that Cortés was a representative of Quetzalcoatl, a god who had promised to return after departing centuries ago. They were given a large sum og gold and a palace to stay in. With this invitation, the Spaniards and the other allied tribes took Moctezuma hostage and conquered the city.

Read the letter Columbus wrote to Raphael Sanchez and the King and Queen of Spain on page 407. How might Columbus have been attempting to portray his expedition? Can we trust what he said? What motives may he have had in the way he wrote the letter?

Columbus might have been attempting to portray his expedition as a complete success, as this letter was going to the King and Queen of Spain, who were funding his voyages, making his letter a little bit difficult to trust. By the way he wrote his letter, he was portraying the natives as naive and unsophisticated, as they were unclothed and wanted to trade cotton and gold for worthless trinkets. This portrayal would make it seem like there was a great opportunity for land, wealth, and an increase in the Christian faith, as such primitive, illiterate people would be easier to convert.

What kinds of items did Europeans have high demand for that were supplied by the East?

Europeans had a high demand for spices from the East as well as other "precious items of the region."

Who was Ferdinand Magellan and why is he such a significant historical figure? Who funded his voyage?

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer and adventurer who was convinced that he could find a sea passage to Asia through America. Magellan was able to gain permission from the king of Spain, who gave finances for Magellan's voyage, and finally set sail on August 10th with five ships and 277 men. During the voyage, Magellan and his fleet, who thought he was crazy, traveled down the coast of South America in order to find the strait. Eventually, Magellan was able to find the strait, which would later be named after him, that emerged into an unknown ocean he called the Pacific Sea. He had originally thought that once he passed through the strait, he would travel upon the Spice Islands of the East. However, as food supplies became scarce and weeks passed, Magellan realized he had made a crucial mistake. When he was finally able to reach the lands of the Philippines, Magellan was killed by the natives and only one out of the five ships survived and were able to return back to Spain. Magellan is a historical figure because he is remembered to be the first person to circumnavigate the world, marking a new era that affected politics, economics, and cultural life in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

What was the significance of Goa to the Portuguese? What about Malacca?

Goa was the headquarters for Portuguese operations in spice trade on the western coast of India. The Goa port facility was established in order for the Portuguese to have a monopoly in the spice trade after they defeated Turk, Indian, and Arab ships in hopes of cutting off the trade to Muslim rulers in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. Malacca was a city in the Malay peninsula that flourished with trade as a major stopping point in the spice trade. Malacca was controlled by Mulsim rulers, which the Portuguese were able to defeat and then take control of the port, slaughtering the local Arab population. This initiated a brutal struggle between the Portuguese and the Arabs. The establishment of the port facility in Goa and the conquering of Malacca were both led by Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque.

Who was Henry the Navigator? Who was Hernan Cortes?

Henry the Navigator was a Portuguese prince who sponsored the exploration of the coast of Africa in search of a Christian kingdom as an ally against the Muslims, new trade opportunities for Portugal, and the expansion of the Christian faith. Prince Henry established a school of navigators on the southwestern coast of Portugal in 1419, leading to the transportation of slaves from Africa to Europe, then the discovery of a new source of gold along the southern coast of West Africa (known as the Gold Coast). Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who led the Spanish troops to the conquering of the Aztec Empire. Hernán Cortés was mistaken to be a representative of a god by the ruler of the Aztec Empire, Moctezuma, which made it much easier for Spain and the other allied tribes to claim the Aztec territory.

Compare and contrast the effects of European exploration and expansion on the following territories: North and South America, Africa, and Asia.

In North and South America, the native American civilizations were destroyed due to diseases and the replacing of ancient social and political structures by European institutions, language, religion, and culture. Africa was affected by the negation of population growth and the encouragement of the growth of territories in West Africa by the slave trade. These territories waged internal wars in order to gather more slaves to trade for guns and gunpowder. The Portuguese trading posts in the East had little to no effect on the native Asian civilizations, however Dutch control of the Indonesian archipelago was more pervasive. India also became subject to ever-growing British encroachment.

Although slavery had been around in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe for centuries what changed the nature of slavery and truly drove the Atlantic Slave Trade beginning in the late 15th century?

In the Middle East, which was the primary market for African slaves during the fifteenth century, slaves were used as domestic servants. Europe also had many slaves from Africa, which they then used for household or agricultural duties, along with war captives. For example, Portugal replaced European slaves with African ones in order to receive help as domestic servants for affluent families. However, the nature of slavery changed when European colonies in the Americas, who needed help in silver mining and on sugar plantations, endured a shortage of Indian laborers from diseases. This made them look to Africa for slaves. Sugar plantations began to be set up by Portugal on an island off of the central coast of Africa, then along the eastern coast of Brazil and on several islands in the Caribbeans. These required large numbers of slaves, all of who were shipped to Brazil and the islands mentioned, from Portugal. In 1518, the Spanish also sent a boatload of slaves directly from Africa to the New World.

In 1271, Marco Polo ventured to visit the Mongols in Eastern Asia. What happened in the 14th century that stifled overland travels to the east from Europe?

In the fourteenth century, the conquests of the Ottoman Turks and the breakup of the Mongol Empire led to the closing of overland routes to the east from Europe. As a result, many Europeans searched for ways to travel to the east by sea in order to obtain spices and other goods.

What is inflation?

Inflation is the dramatic rise in the cost of goods and services.

How was the French version of colonizing North America different from the English? What region did they stake a claim as their territory? What kinds of items did they trade by contrast to their English competitors?

Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, had discovered the Saint Lawrence River in 1534, then proceeded to lay claim to Canada as French territory. Unlike the English, France did not take serious interest in this claim, at least not until Samuel de Champlain established a settlement at Quebec. Finally, Canada was officially made the property of France in 1663, and was administered by a French governor like a French province. This was different from the British colonies who were run by the British Board of Trade, the Royal Council, and the Parliament, all of which had legislatures that tended to act independently. Some merchants in port cities even resisted regulation from the British government.

What was the first successful English colony? Who did it attract from England? What was the central purpose of the colonies in North America?

Jamestown was the first successful English colony, founded in 1607 in modern Virginia. It attracted people who had a desire to practice one's own religion and those who had economic interests. The colonies provided raw materials, such as cotton, sugar, and tobacco, for the mother country. They also bought the latter's manufactured goods, while navigation acts regulated what could be taken from and sold to the colonies. This system was to provide a balance of trade favorable for the mother country.

How is the population of Central and South America so different from that of North America? What caused these differences? What are mestizos? What are mulattoes?

Latin American was a new civilization and a multiracial society that rose in Central and South America. Many Spanish and Portuguese settlers who arrived in the Western Hemisphere were few in numbers in relation to the native Indians. Additionally, the majority of the newcomers were males who took advantage of female natives and married them, as intermarriage had been authorized by Spanish rulers in 1501. The offspring from these marriages became known as mestizos. Furthermore, Africans were brought to Latin America, adding up to as many as eight million slaves over a period of three centuries to work on plantations. Mulattoes were the offspring of Africans and whites. This contributed to how different the population of Central and South America was compared to that of North America because of the diversity of the population that developed less rigid attitudes towards race.

What major asset were they interested in getting from the New World? What three factors led to Spain's decline and being eclipsed by the British and French?

Many Europeans set up colonies in the New World to start sugar plantations. Spain declined because of a drop in the output of silver mines and the poverty of the Spanish monarchy. When they were faced with new rivals, Spain could not compete. The British and French ignored the claims that Spain made on all of North America, and Henry Hudson, who was a Dutch explorer, discovered the Hudson River in 1609, enabling the Dutch to start the mainland colony of New Netherland. This colony stretched from the mouth of the Hudson River to Albany, New York.

What is mercantilism? How is it fundamentally different from capitalism? What is bullion, or bullionism?

Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that a nation's prosperity depends on its supply of gold and silver and that the total volume of trade is unchangeable. It is also advocated that the government play an active role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs. This is fundamentally different from capitalism, since capitalism advocates for the controlling of the country's trade and industry by private owners, rather than the state. Bullion is gold and silver and bullionism in an economic theory that defines wealth by the amount of precious metals owned.

What was the relationship between Montezuma and Cortes? How did that end?

Moctezuma thought that Cortés was a representative of a god who had left centuries ago and had promised to return to the Aztecs. Because of this, Moctezuma invited Cortés and the Spaniards into the city and gave them a large amount of gold and a palace to stay in. This invitation made it much easier for Cortés and other allied tribes to take Moctezuma hostage and conquer the city.

What are portolani, or portolan charts? What qualities did they have?

Portolani or portolan charts were made by medieval navigators and mathematicians in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which proved to be more useful than the highly schematic and symbolic medieval maps. These maps included details on coastal contours, distances between ports, and compass readings. Although they helped in most voyages, long overseas voyages were much more difficult especially with these maps because they were drawn on a flat scale, disregarding the curvature of the earth, which would later be discovered by the end of the fifteenth century.

Who was Ptolemy? Why was the use of his invention by navigators somewhat ironic for the 15th century?

Ptolmey was an astronomer of the second century C.E., who created the work called the Geography, which was later used and translated to Latin during the fifteenth century. The Geography contained a world map with three major land masses-Europe, Asia, and Africa-as well as two oceans. The circumference of the earth was underestimated and led Columbus and other adventurers to believe that sailing west from Europe to Asia would be possible. The fact that the Europeans who traveled across the world overseas and mapped it out would trust and use a map from the second century, which did prove to be more accurate in the actual shape of the earth, is kind of ironic.

What is religious zeal? Why were Spanish and Portuguese so interested in the business of crusades?

Religious zeal means that someone is motivated or willing to do something due to religious reasons. The Spanish and the Portuguese were interested in the business of crusades because they felt obligated to spread the message of the Lord Jesus Christ and their faith to the rest of the world in order to convert people to Christianity.

Where did the British East India Company set up shop in China? What was the agreement with the Qing dynasty? What happened when the British attempted to expand their trade in China?

The British East India Company set up shop on an island just outside the city walls of Canton. The agreement with the Qing dynasty was that they could only reside at this one small island and just from October through March. Although this brought them profit, the British wanted to expand their trade to other coastal Chinese cities. Because of this, a British mission under Lord Macartney visited Beijing in 1793 in hopes of loosening the trade restrictions. However, they were denied by Emperor Qianlong to expand their trade, which Macartney responded to by saying that the Chinese ruler was "an old, crazy, first-rate man of war."

What allowed the Conquistadors to excel in taking over new lands?

The Conquistadors excelled in taking over new lands because of their superior weapons, organizational skills, determination, and because they benefited from rivalries among the natives and the decimation of the natives by European diseases.

How did English and French settlements differ from the settlements set up by the Portuguese and Spanish in the New World?

The English and French settlements differed from the settlements set up by the Portuguese and Spanish in the New World because Portugal and Spain established settlements to exploit available resources like sugar cane and gold. The French established settlements that were based upon the fur trade and the English settlements found no precious metals when they arrived, thus growing tobacco instead and relying on agriculture. The English also built long-lasting communities that were focused on agriculture and industry.

Where did the English first settle in North America? When? Was it successful? Why or why not?

The English first settled in modern-day Virginia and established the colony of Jamestown in 1607. At first, the colony barely survived due to profits not being quickly earned, but the desire to practice one's own religion and economic/ agricultural interests led to successful colonization.

Who took over the Dutch interests in India in the 1650s? Where did they first settle? What empire was in power when they arrived? Who was their biggest competitor?

The English took over the Dutch interest in India in the 1650s, first establishing ports at Surat, Fort William, and Madras. When they arrived, the Portuguese Empire was in power. The biggest competitor to the English was the French.

Describe what the experience of a slave being transported across the Middle Passage was like.

The Middle Passage was the middle leg of the triangular trade route, or the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas. The slaves were tightly packed into cargo ships, then chained in holds with sanitary facilities or room to stand up. The journey usually took about 100 days, and the mortality rates averaged to ten percent, but even longer journeys due to bad weather ended up with higher death rates. Dysentery and other diseases were also common among the slaves.

What kingdom was an early leader in navigation and expansion? Where did they set up their trading posts? What kinds of items were they primarily interested in bringing back to Europe?

The Portuguese Empire was an early leader in navigation and expansion. They set up their trading posts along the coasts of East and West Africa, the coast of Southwestern India, the present-day Philippine islands, the Southeastern coast of China, and the east coast of South America. They were primarily interested in the spice trade, especially spices from the East, which they brought back to Europe. However, they also had interests in gold, ivory, and slaves.

Why did Portugal ultimately lose out on being able to control their trading posts?

The Portuguese found it hard to dominate the trade of Southeast Asia because they lacked both the numbers and the wealth to be able to fight against and defeat local resistance, then proceed to claim and colonize Asian regions. "Portugal's empire was simply too large and Portugal too small to maintain it." The Spanish, the Dutch, and the English were also large threats/rivals (and were better financed than Portugal) to control the trade in Southeast Asia. While Spain controlled the region where Magellan landed in the Philippines, the Dutch seized Portuguese forts and pushed them out of the spice trade, occupying most of the Portugese trading ports throughout the Indian Ocean for the next fifty years. They also claimed the island of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka), and Malacca in 1641. Eventually, the English were driven out as well by the Dutch and were left with a single port on the southern coast of Sumatra.

What allowed the Portuguese to be so successful on the high seas?

The Portuguese were so successful because of guns and seamanship. The fleets of Portuguese ships not only intimidated their enemies, but also were able to cause severe damage and inflict warfare to both land and naval forces. Furthermore, the Portuguese were able to perfect their use of naval technology, mounting heavy guns in the hulls of their vessels, in addition to their mastered tactics and military techniques.

What is the encomienda system? How was running the encomienda in the New World probably different than if it were in Spain?

The Spanish encomienda system was established by Queen Isabella, which was a social and economic system that permitted the conquering Spaniards to collect tribute from the Indians and use them as laborers. The Spaniards enforcing the encomienda were supposed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and support their spiritual needs. Running the encomienda was probably different in the New World than it would have been if it were in Spain, since the Spaniards were three thousand miles away and were able to ignore the government and brutally use the Indians for their own economic interests.

Where did the Spanish set up their overseas colonies? Why? Who funded Columbus's voyage? Why?

The Spanish set up their overseas colonies in South America and part of North America. While the Portuguese were looking for a way to access the spice trade of the Indies by sailing eastward, the Spanish wanted to find a way to access it by sailing westward. At the time, contemporaries believed the earth's circumference to be a lot smaller than it actually was, which is what led people like Columbus to take this route and eventually set up colonies westward. Although the book did not state the original reasoning behind Queen Isabella of Spain funding Columbus' first voyage, he promised Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand gold and the opportunity to convert natives upon his arrival back in Spain, then leading him to be given the funds for the next three voyages.

Spain and Portugal were competing in the New World. What did the Treaty of Tordesillas do?

The Treaty of Tordesillas divided up the New World, otherwise known as the Americas, into Spanish and Portuguese territories. Most of South America and the route across the Atlantic belonged to Spain, while the route east around the Cape of Good Hope belonged to the Portuguese.

Who were the winners and losers of this economic shift?(Political Revolution)

This economic shift resulted in wage earners, such as agricultural laborers and salaried workers in urban areas, becoming financially unstable, as well as their standard of living dropping. Landed aristocrats were able to raise rents during this time period and prosper, while commercial and industrial entrepreneurs also benefited from the rising prices, expanding markets, and relatively cheaper labor costs. Furthermore, governments were affected by inflation, causing them to borrow heavily from bankers and burden their subjects with taxes.

Describe the missionary efforts in China and Japan. What religious order was most prominent there? How "complete" were these conversions to Christianity by the Chinese and/or Japanese?

When Christian missionaries traveled to China and Japan, the Jesuits became the most prominent religious order there. The majority of the Jesuit missionaries to China were highly educated men who sparked interest in the Chinese officials by showing them clocks and various other instruments, allowing them to become more open to Western ideas, as well as Christianity. The Jesuits used similarities between Christian morality and Confucian ethics to make the Chinese accept Christianity more easily. In the early eighteenth century, several hundred Chinese officials became Catholics, as well as 300,000 of the ordinary Chinese. In addition, the Jesuits allowed the new Catholics to continue the practice of worshipping their ancestors, but Dominicans and Franciscans complained to the pope, who condemned the practice, resulting in Chinese authorities beginning to suppress Christian activities. Furthermore, the Jesuits had some success in Japan and were able to convert a number of local nobles. Thousands of Japanese on the islands of Kyushu and Shikoku had also become Christians by the end of the sixteenth century. However, the Jesuits destroyed local idols, shrines, and some temples by turning them into Christian schools and churches, which caused the government to order the execution of nine missionaries and a number of their Japanese converts when a new group of Spanish Franciscans continued the same policies. Soon, Tokugawa leyasu also expelled all missionaries when they began to interfere with politics, and Japanese Christians were persecuted.

Where were the Inca located as compared to the Aztecs? Who was their ruler? How many people made up their empire?

While the Aztec city was located at Lake Texcoco (modern-day Mexico City), the Inca built their community in Cuzco, located at a 10,000 foot altitude in the mountains of Peru. Pachakuti, the ruler, then was able to lay claim to the entire region, which consisted of 12 million people. The boundaries of the empire extended to Ecuador, central Chile, and the edge of the American basin.