Chapter 17 Med Terms

How many years of decreasing estrogen levels does it take for a woman to go into menopause

3 to 5

Usually around age 2 to 3 a child begins to understand the differences between male and female genders.

A gender identity is formed and the child is first able to explain which of these sexes he or she is to others

Depending on a woman's age a routine gynecological exam usually includes a prescription for a mammogram a cancer screening test for the breasts that can detect tumors before they can be felt. Mammography is a procedure that produces radiograms of the breasts. The age recommended for routine mammography differs according to family history, physical condition and the recommending body.

A pregnancy test is a blood or urine test to detect human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) a hormone that stimulates growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The use of radiological devices to view the structure of the breast tissue is called a mammography.

At birth most females have from 200,000 to 400,000 immature ova (oocytes) in each ovary. Many of these disintegrate before the female reaches puberty the stage at which ovulation and menarche (first menstrual flow or menses) occurs (usually between 10 and 14 years of age). Menstruation is the cyclical release of the uterine lining usually occurring every 28 days. Most women menstruate monthly (except during pregnancy) for about 30 to 40 years. Menopause signals the end of the ovulation/menstruation cycle and therefore the end of the childbearing years.

After release the ovum next enters one of the two uterine or fallopian tubes which have fingerlike ends called fimbriae that sweep the ovum further down into the tube where it may be fertilized by a sperm. Fertilized or not the ovum moves by contractions of the tube to the uterus. The uterus is pear-shaped and about the size of the fist. it is wider at the top than the bottom where it attaches to the vagina. Once inside the uterus a fertilized ovum attaches to the uterine wall where it will be nourished for about 40 weeks of development (gestation). The upper portion of the uterus the fundus is where a nutrient-rich organ (the placenta) grows in the uterine wall. An ovum that has not been fertilized is released along with the lining of the uterus (endometrium) during menstruation.

Pregnancy:

As a result of contact between the sperm and an ovum usually through sexual intercourse (coitus or copulation), fertilization may occur. Fertilization should take place soon after ovulation and high in the fallopian tube to ensure the cells are at the proper stage of development when entering the uterus. If fertilized pregnancy begins. Fertilization may also take place through artificial insemination. This can take place either by mechanical insertion of sperm from a sperm donor or by in vitro fertilization, which occurs in a laboratory that harvests ova and fertilizes them in the laboratory before implanting them into the uterus. a pregnant woman is known as a gravida with gravida I being the first pregnancy, gravida II being the second and so on.

Males are sometimes treated with hormone replacement therapy (usually testosterone). Such treatment can help with sexual problems and with some of the signs of aging. Medications for impotence may help some men restore sexual function. Erectile dysfunction may also be treated surgically or with mechanical devices. Occasionally erectile dysfunction is a vascular problem and may be treated with medication.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia as discussed earlier produces uncomfortable and troublesome symptoms for the patient. There are several treatment and pharmacology options that are utilized to ease the pressure or alleviate symptoms. The condition is many times manageable with treatment and regular checkups.

Breast cancer may be treated surgically. A lumpectomy is the removal of the tumor itself along with surrounding tissue. During a mastectomy a breast is removed which may mean the breast and underlying muscle as in a simple mastectomy; the breast, underlying muscles, and lymph nodes as in a radical mastectomy or removal of the breast and lymph nodes as in a modified radical mastectomy

Breast surgery may include plastic surgery after mastectomy (mammoplasty) or reduction of the size of the breast (reduction mammoplasty). Some women have pendulous breast tissue raised (mastopexy) or have small breasts augmented by surgical insertion of implants (augmentation mammoplasty)

Several tests for fertility problems include hysterosalpingography, a procedure to x-ray the uterus and uterine tubes after a contrast medium is injected; pelvic ultrasonography imaging of the pelvic region using sound waves (used both for detection of tumors and for examination of the fetus); and transvaginal ultrasound also a sound wave image of the pelvic area but done with a probe inserted into the vagina.

During pregnancy, the dimensions of the pelvis are measured during pelvimetry, the taking of a measurement to see if the pelvis is large enough to allow delivery. Fetal monitoring records an infant's heart rate and other functions during labor. There is also a simple blood test recently developed to detect pregnant women at risk for preeclampsia a potentially fatal condition.

The female reproductive system is responsible for providing an optimal place for fertilization and growth of another human being until birth and providing important hormones to the body. It is comprised of the following main organs: ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, cervix, vagina, labia, and clitoris.

Gynecology is the study of the female systems and obstetrics is the specialty that cares for the pregnant woman. There are several combining forms for structure and function that will be discussed through the chapter. Stress, diet, and illness can affect a woman's ability to ovulate. Women can ovulate without menstruation and women can menstruate without ovulation. The average eggs live roughly 24 hours after leaving the ovaries.

The PAP smear test was developed and named after Dr. George Papanicolaou in the 1930s. A PAP smear is a scraping of the cells of the cervix to see if they are normal. It is the number one way of catching and diagnosing cervical cancer early. With early detection the chance of survival increases significantly.

HPV (human papilloma virus) is the most common female sexually transmitted disease in the United States today. It is otherwise called genital warts but the majority of cases affect the cervix and therefore many women do not even know that they have it. There are currently over 40 different strains and it is the leading cause of cervical cancer. Regular PAP smears can detect the condition.

Various forms of birth control are pharmacological agents. Spermicides destroy sperm in the vagina; birth control pills, patches and implants control the flow of hormones to block ovulation; and abortifacients or morning-after pills prevent implantation of an ovum.

Hormone replacement therapy is used during and after natural or surgical menopause to alleviate symptoms such as hot flashes. Oxytocin another hormone is used to induce labor. A tocolytic agent stops labor contractions.

Birth or developmental defects affect the functioning of the reproductive system. An undescended testicle (cryptorchidism) means that the normal descending of the testicle to the scrotal sac does not take place during gestation and requires surgery to place it properly. anorchism or anorchia is the lack of one or both testes

Hypospadias is an abnormal opening of the urethra on the underside of the penis. Epispadias is an abnormal opening on the top side of the penis. The birth defect phimosis is an abnormal narrowing of the foreskin over the glans penis foreskin over the glans penis (only in uncircumcised males). These conditions are also repaired for surgery (sometimes during circumcision) in which the foreskin is removed and used in the repair

A routine gynecological exam usually includes a Papanicolaou (Pap smear), a gathering of cells from the cervix to detect cervical or vaginal cancer or other anomalies. The vagina is held open by a vaginal speculum a device that holds open any cavity or canal for examination. The cervix and vagina may also be examined by colposcopy, use of a lighted instrument (a colposcope) for viewing into the vagina. The colposcope is used for almost all vaginal examinations and is a very common instrument in a gynecological or obstetrical office.

Hysteroscopy is the use of a hysteroscope a lighted instrument for examination of the interior of the uterus. Culdoscopy is the use of an endoscope to examine the contents of the pelvic cavity. These tests can determine whether masses, tumors, or other abnormalities are present. Some abnormalities are caused by sexually transmitted diseases. A Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) slide test can show the presence of a sexually transmitted disease.

Infertility

Inability to conceive after one year of unprotected sex

A condyloma is a growth on the outside of the genitalia that may be a result of an infection by the human papilloma virus (HPV). an ovarian cyst develops on or in the ovaries. fibroids are common benign tumors found in the uterus. They may cause pain and bleeding. Some growths occur when normal tissue is found in abnormal areas for example endometriosis is an abnormal condition in which uterine lining tissue (endometrium) is found in the pelvis or on the abdominal wall. This results in the endometrial cells growing and shedding with each menstrual cycle making the problem worse with each passing month. any symptom that is new or unusual should be watched and checked with a health care provider.

Malignant growths found in the reproductive system can be fatal unless detected early. cervical cancer is often detected early with PAP smears before having spread ( carcinoma in situ). endometrial cancer occurs in the endometrium. Ovarian cancer is a potentially fatal cancer of the ovary; it is difficult to diagnose in its earliest stages and often spreads to other organs before it is detected.

Established in 1985 the Human Milk Banking Association of North America (HMBANA) is a professional association for milk banks across the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Mothers who cannot supply enough milk for their babies can acquire human milk via milk banks. The HMBANA establishes guidelines and standards for human milk banks across North America

Many women use their gynecologist as their primary care physician. This is usually because most women of child-bearing age only need a physician trained around the female system and/or obstetrics therefor they are comfortable with one physician taking care of all their needs. In most practices a gynecologist is also an obstetrician. The difference is that a gynecologist treats non pregnant female disorders and an obstetrician only treats pregnant women.

Endometriosis affects more women than does cancer or AIDS. Nearly 5 million women are affected by endometriosis.

Medications and prescriptions written from a gynecology practice usually revolve around the female cycle, sexual activity, conception/prevention, and drugs to induce and ease the pain of labor. Practitioners treat a variety of other illnesses and symptoms and several over the counter herbal and vitamin therapies are popular to relieve symptoms such as bloating and PMS that accompany menses.

a baby girl is born with all of the egg cels (oocytes) she will ever have already in her ovaries. None develop after birth. At about 5 months of gestation the ovaries of a female fetus contain 6 to 7 million oocytes. Most of the oocytes gradually are absorbed into the body leaving about 1 to 2 million at birth and by puberty only about 300,000 are left.

More than enough for a lifetime of fertility

Abnormalities in menses, pathological conditions and preventive measures have made a hysterectomy one of the most common surgical procedures today. Advances in techniques have helped to alleviate many of the postoperative pain and open wound healing issues. Laparoscopic of the postoperative pain and open wound healing issues. Laparoscopic hysterectomy and vaginal hysterectomy have decreased many of the risks and fears patients have with an open abdominal surgery

One in eight women or approximately 12% of all women will get breast cancer in her lifetime, and it is estimated that 40,000 women in the United States will die this year from it. About 50,000 women have mastectomies each year as a result of breast cancer directly or as a prophylactic measure for those with high risk of breast cancer.

Various inflammations and infections occur in the female reproductive system. Cervicitis is an inflammation of the cervix. Mastitis is a general term for inflammation of the breast particularly during lactation. Salpingitis is an inflammation of the vagina. Toxic shock syndrome is a rare severe infection that occurs in menstruating women and is usually associated with tampon use. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a bacterial infection anywhere in the female reproductive system.

Organs of the reproductive system may suffer from muscle weakness. a prolapsed uterus is a condition where the uterine muscles cause the cervix to protrude into the vaginal opening. Perineal muscles can be strengthened using Kegel exercises alternately contracting and releasing the perineal muscles.

Menstrual abnormalities sometimes occur. Amenorrhea, the absence of menstruation may result from a normal condition (pregnancy or menopause) or an abnormal condition (excessive dieting or extremely strenuous exercise). It may also occur for no apparent reason. Dysmenorrhea is painful cramping associated with menstruation. Menorrhagia is excessive menstrual bleeding. Oligomenorrhea is a scanty menstrual period. Menometrorrhagia is irregular and often excessive bleeding during or between menstrual periods. Metrorrhagia is uterine bleeding between menstrual periods.

Other abnormal conditions in the female cycle also occur. Anovulation is the absence of ovulation. Olio-ovulation is irregular ovulation. Leukorrhea is an abnormal vaginal discharge.

Cryosurgery (freezing) and cauterization (burning) are two methods of destroying tissue (such as polyps) using cold temperatures in the former and burning in the latter. A loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) is the removal of precancerous tissue from around the cervix with a wirelike instrument

Parts of the female reproductive system may have to be removed usually because of the presence of cancer or benign growths that cause pain or excessive bleeding. a biopsy is usually performed first to determine the spread of cancer. A conization is the removal of a cone-shaped section of the cervix for examination. Breast cancer may be diagnosed by aspiration, a type of biopsy in which fluid is withdrawn through a needle by suction. A hysterectomy is removal of the uterus that may be done through the abdomen (abdominal hysterectomy) or through the vagina (vaginal hysterectomy). New procedures such as laparoscopic hysterectomies are reducing recovery time.

As the male matures, infections and various other medical conditions may cause infertility an inability to produce enough viable sperm to fertilize an ovum or an inability to deliver sperm to the proper location in the vagina.

Several levels of sperm production may be involved in infertility. Aspermia is the inability to produce sperm; azoospermia is semen without living sperm; and oligospermia is the scanty production of sperm.

Surgery of the female reproductive system is performed for a variety of reasons. during pregnancy, it may be necessary to terminate a pregnancy prematurely (abortion) to remove a fetus through an abdominal incision (caesarean birth) to open and scrape the lining of the uterus (dilation and curettage, D&C) or to puncture the amniotic sac to obtain a sample of the fluid for examination (amniocentesis). In culdocentesis a sample of fluid from the base of the pelvic cavity may show if an ectopic pregnancy has ruptured. An ectopic pregnancy can be removed through a salpingotomy an incision into one of the fallopian tubes.

Surgery may also be performed as a form of birth control. Tubal ligation a method of female sterilization blocks the fallopian tubes by cutting or tying and thereby blocking the passage of ova. It is usually performed using a laparoscope a thin tube inserted through a woman's navel during laparoscopy.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases that are transmitted primarily through sexual contact. Some common sexually transmitted diseases include syphilis an infectious disease treatable with antibiotics; gonorrhea a contagious infection of the genital mucous membrane; herpes II a contagious and recurring infection with lesions on the genitalia; human papilloma virus (HPV) a contagious infection that causes genital warts; chlamydia a microorganism that causes several sexually transmitted diseases; and HIV (which leads to AIDs). HPV is sometimes associated with cervical cancer. Trichomoniasis an infection often in the vaginal tract may also be transmitted through sexual contact.

Syphilis is a serious STD that is passed from contact with an affected person. The disease itself is very similar in a basic way to rabies. It can be treated if caught early and it eventually affects the brain and causes insanity before death. Al Capone the famous mobster died of syphilis complications.

amniocentesis

Test of amniotic fluid by insertion of a needle into the amnion

Morning-after pills are a backup method of emergency contraception when taken within 72 hours of unprotected intercourse.

The bones begin to calcify or harden by the 12th week of fetal development

Menopause: Menopause the cessation of menstruation takes place after levels of estrogen decline. Most women experience menopause between the ages of 45 and 55. However some women may experience it earlier than that or later. The period of hormonal changes leading up to menopause is called the climacteric. The three to five years of decreasing estrogen levels prior to menopause is called perimenopause.

The hormonal changes cause symptoms in some women that can be uncomfortable, such as night sweats, fatigue, irritability, or vaginal dryness. Hormone replacement therapy is sometimes used. Some women find relief from increasing their intake of natural plant estrogens found in such products as soy.

Approximately 40 million women undergo a mammogram to screen for breast cancer each year in the United States. The National Cancer institute recommends that every woman have an initial mammogram at the age of 40.

The major function of the female reproductive system is to bear children. There are several basic tests for pregnancy. Diagnosis of fertility problems involves more sophisticated technology. Aside from pregnancy the health of the female reproductive system is monitored on a regular basis by a gynecologist a physician who diagnoses and treats disorders of the female reproductive system. An obstetrician diagnoses and treats both normal and abnormal pregnancies and childbirths.

The space between the bottom of the labia majora and the anus is called the perineum. During childbirth it is possible for the perineum to become torn. A surgical procedure (episiotomy) is commonly done before childbirth to avoid tearing the perineum because an even surgical incision is easier to repair.

The mammary glands or breasts are full of glandular tissue that is stimulated by hormones after puberty to grow and respond to the cycles of menstruation and birth. During pregnancy hormones stimulate the lactiferous (milk producing) ducts and sinuses that transport milk to the nipple (or mammary papilla). The dark-pigmented area surrounding the nipple is called the areola. After birth (parturition) the mammary glands experience a letdown reflex which allows milk to flow through the nipples (lactation) when the infant suckles.

Pregnancy is a normal process with gestation taking about 40 weeks and ending in the birth of an infant. Some pregnancies are not in themselves normal and spontaneously end in abortion. Abortion is a controversial term in public discourse, but in medicine it simply means the premature end of a pregnancy whether spontaneously during a miscarriage or surgically.

The placenta may break away from the uterine wall (abruptio placentae) and require immediate delivery of the infant. Placenta previa is a condition in which the placenta blocks the birth canal and usually requires a caesarean delivery. Even though a pregnancy appears normal a stillbirth, birth of a dead fetus, may occur. The typical pregnancy lasts from 37-40 weeks. an infant may be born prematurely before 37 weeks gestation. A toxic condition during pregnancy is called preeclampsia.

An umbilical cord connects the placenta to the navel of the fetus so that the mother's blood and the fetal blood do not mix, but nutrients and waste products are exchanged. The fetus develops in a sac containing the chorion, the outermost membrane covering the fetus, and the amnion, the intermost membrane next to the fluid surrounding the fetus ( amniotic fluid). The birth process usually begins when the sac breaks naturally or is broken by medical intervention.

The placenta separates from the uterus after delivery and is expelled from the body as the afterbirth. The umbilical cord is then severed and tied so that the infant is physically separated from its mother. At the end of this process, the woman is known as a para (once who has maintained a pregnancy to the point of viability). Para I refers to the first such pregnancy, para II the second and so on.

The female reproductive system while active goes through a cycle termed the menstrual cycle. this cycle usually occurs every 28 days and consists of changes in the uterine lining that results in menses (menorrhea) or shedding of the lining and a repeat of the cycle again.

The purpose of the menstrual cycle is to accommodate a potential fetus. Hormones play a large part of regulation of this cycle and of the female system in general.

Most of the external structures and internal organs develop during the embryonic period

The second stage of childbirth is the expulsion of the fetus.

Just below the prostate are the two bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands) that also secrete a fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the male urethra prior to ejaculation. The urethra passes through the penis to the outside of the body.

The tip of the penis is called the glans penis a sensitive area covered by the foreskin (prepuce). Between the penis and the anus is the area called the perineum.

Dyspareunia is painful sexual intercourse, usually due to some condition such as dryness, inflammation, or other disorder in the female reproductive system.

The uterus normally sits forward over the bladder. Abnormal positioning of the uterus includes anteflexion, a bending forward. Retroflexion is a bending backward of the uterus so that it is angled and Retroversion is a backward turn of the uterus (sometimes called a tipped uterus) so that it faces toward the back.

The development of sperm (spermatogenesis) takes place in the scrotum where the temperature is lower than inside the body. The lower temperature is necessary for the safe development of sperm. Inside the testes are cells that manufacture the sperm cells.

These cells are contained in seminiferous tubules. Between the seminiferous tubules lie endocrine cells that produce testosterone, the most important male hormone; it is thought to decrease during a stage of life sometimes referred to as "male menopause"

The organs of the male reproductive system produce and maintain new sperm (male sex cells) daily, transport these cells, along with seminal fluid, to the outside, and secrete male hormones to the systems.

Urology is the medical specialty that treats and cares for the male reproductive system.

The spermatozoon is a microscopic cell, much smaller than an ovum. It has a head region that carries genetic material (chromosomes) and a tail (flagellum) that propels the sperm forward. During ejaculation, hundreds of millions of sperm are released.

Usually only one sperm can fertilize a single ovum. In rare instances two or more ova are fertilized at a single time, resulting in twins, triplets, quadruplets, and so on. Identical twins result when one ovum splits after it has been fertilized by a single sperm. Fraternal twins are the result of two sperm fertilizing two ova.

If a couple is having fertility problems , a semen analysis is done to determine the quantity and quality of the male partner's sperm

X-ray or imaging procedures are used to further test for abnormalities or blockages. A urethrogram is an x-ray of the urethra and prostate.

Breech position

a fetus with buttocks presenting first

amnio

amnion

andropathy

any disease peculiar to men

The morula becomes a

blastocyst while still in the uterine tube

mammo

breast

masto

breast

cervico

cervix

Anorchism

congenital absence of one or both testicles

Metropathy

disease of the urterus

oo

egg

ovi, ovo

egg

epididymo

epididymis

inflammation of the ducts as the top of the testis where sperm are stored

epididymitis

salpingo

fallopian tube

gyneco

female

Hydrocele

fluid containing hernia of the testis.

balano

glans penis

Medical specialty that diagnoses and treats disorders of the female reproductive system is

gynecology

mammography

imaging of the breast

FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)

increases testosterone; aids in sperm production. Source pituitary gland

ooporitis

inflammation of an ovary

mastitis

inflammation of the breast

balanitis

inflammation of the glans penis

orchitis

inflammation of the testis

vulvitis

inflammation of the vulva

Inhibin

inhibits FSH. Source Testes

Circumcision

is a common male reproductive organ surgical procedure. It is the removal of the foreskin which is the surgical procedure. It is the removal of the foreskin which is the skin that covers the tip of the penis. It is often done before a newborn baby boy leaves the hospital. There are medical benefits and risks to circumcision. Possible benefits include a lower risk of urinary tract infections, penile cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases. The risks include pain and a low risk of bleeding or infection. These risks are higher for older babies, boys and men. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend routine circumcision. Parents need to decide that is best for their sons based on their religious, cultural and personal preferences.

Semen analysis

is a common test done to evaluate the number and quality of a male's sperm, pH of the seminal fluid, shape, and abnormalities in the fluid contents. It is mostly done when evaluating the reproductive status and ability in a couple who have been unsuccessful in conceiving a baby.

Cryptorchidism (crypto = hidden)

is a pathological condition that occurs when a testicle does not descend into the scrotal sac before birth. In the normal male infant, the testicles have descended into the scrotum by the time the child is born. Cryptorchidism occurs most often in premature babies born before 37 weeks of pregnancy or gestation

ovoid

is egg-shaped

cervicitis

is inflammation of cervix

oogenesis

is production of eggs

mastectomy

is surgical removal of the breast

milk production is

lactogenesis

Aspiration

medical procedure in which a needle is inserted into an affected area and fluid is withdrawn to determine possible pathological conditions.

Andro

men

cessation of menstruation is

menopause

menorrhea

menstrual discharge

meno

menstruation

galacto

milk

lacto, lacti

milk

The zygote divides and produces a ball of cells called a

morula

HRT help minimize/alleviate for the female patient

night sweats

Menopause

occurs after childbearing years, when the reproductive hormones begin to decline usually between the ages of 45-55. These changes cause irregular menses, before periods stop altogether. Common symptoms of menopause are listed below: Irregular periods, decreased fertility, hot flashes, sleep disturbances, night sweats, mood swings, increased abdominal fat, thinning hair, vaginal dryness, loss of breast fullness.

Hernia of an ovary is

ovariocele

oophoro

ovary

ovario

ovary

perineo

perineum

balanoplasty

plastic surgery of the glans penis.

Prolactin

promotes lactation. source pituitary gland

prostato

prostate gland

galactopoiesis

relates to milk production

scroto

scrotum

semino

semen

If a female patient is on an HRT

she is taking estrogen

spermo, spermato

sperm

spermatogenesis

sperm production

Estrogen

stimulates development of female sex characteristics and uterine wall thickening. source ovarian follicle; corpus luteum

Testosterone

stimulates development of male sex characteristics; increases sperm; inhibits LH. Source Testes

episiotomy

surgical incision into the perineum to prevent tearing during childbirth

hysterectomy

surgical removal of the uterus

salpingoplasty

surgical repair of a fallopian tube

epididymoplasty

surgical repair of the epididymis

uteroplasty

surgical repair of the uterus

orcho, orchio, orchido

testes

Fetal stage

the period of gestation following the embryonic period

Which of the following physicians would perform a vasectomy

urologist

hystero

uterus

metro

uterus

utero

uterus

colpo

vagina

vagino

vagina

colporrhagia

vaginal hemorrhage

inflammation of the vagina is

vaginitis

vaso

vessel; ductus deferens

episio

vulva

vulvo

vulva

Medical or psychological conditions may cause impotence (penile erectile dysfunction), inability to maintain an erection for ejaculation. Priapism is a persistent, painful erection, usually related to other medical conditions. Hernia, abnormal protrusions of part of a tissue or organ out of its normal space through a barrier, may occur in the male reproductive system.

A hydrocele is a fluid-containing hernia in a testicle; a varicocele is a group of herniated veins near the testes. This is a common cause of infertility due to the increased heat that the dilated blood vessel brings to the scrotum. It can be corrected by surgery.

A normal male medical checkup may include a digital rectal exam (DRE), the insertion of a finger into the rectum to check the prostate for abnormalities, tenderness, or irregularities. During the DRE, the physician can reach approximately two-thirds of the prostate.

A medical checkup for male usually includes a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, a blood test to screen for abnormal prostatic growth, which can be associated with prostate cancer.

Ovulation and Menstruation

Ovulation and menstruation are contained within the average 28 day female cycle. Although the timing of cycle may vary the average female cycle is divided into four phases as follows: 1. Days 1-5. Menstruation takes place during the five days. The endometrial lining sloughs off and is released causing generally slow bleeding through the vagina. 2. Days 6-12. the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is released from the anterior pituitary. The body reactions take place in the ovary where an immature ovum is matured in the graafian follicle and in the uterus where the endometrial lining that has been passed out of the body during menstruation is built up again. This repair is prompted by the production of estrogen. During this time menstruation has stopped. 3. Days 13-14. The next two days approximately two weeks after the beginning of menstruation is the time of ovulation or the egg's release from the graafian follicle and the beginning of its trip down the fallopian tube. This release is stimulated by the pituitary's release of luteinizing hormone (LH) which prompts the fimbriae to swell and wave to entice the newly released ovum toward the fallopian tube. Meanwhile the graafian follicle fills with a yellow substance that secretes estrogen and progesterone. This secreting structure is known as the corpus luteum. The secreted hormones encourage the uterus to prepare for a pregnancy by growing the endometrium into a thick nutritive layer 4. Days 15-28. In the second 14 days of the cycle either fertilization occurs or the built-up endometrium starts to break down as estrogen and progesterone levels drop. The symptoms (bloating , cramping, nervousness, and depression) of the hormonal changes during the phase leading to menstruation (premenstrual syndrome (PMS)) appear.

Various inflammations occur in the male reproductive system. Prostatitis is any inflammation of the prostate; balanitis an inflammation of the glans penis; and epididymitis is an inflammation of the epididymis.

Peyronie disease is a disorder with curvature of the penis caused by some hardening in the interior structure of the penis. Prostate cancer and testicular cancer are fairly common malignancies. A common tumor of the testicle is a seminoma.

It is at the point of ovulation that fertilization can occur or be prevented. Prevention of fertilization is accomplished with contraception. Contraceptive devices include the following intrauterine device (IUD), condom (both male and female), spermicide, diaphragm, or sponge.

Pregnancy is comprised of three trimesters (40 weeks) that mark the fetus (and eventual baby's) development before birth. conception occurs when a female egg (oocyte) and male sperm (spermatocyte) unite after intercourse. Childbearing timeframes vary depending on menses but the age span for pregnancy to occur is usually between 13 and 45. Perimenopause is the transition period between the later childbearing years and the full onset of menopause. It usually occurs between the ages of 35-50 but medications and surgery can begin the process earlier. Perimenopause symptoms are similar to menopause, but to a lesser and non-consistent extent. The main factor of the age onset of permienopause is genes.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are the same for the male as for the female, with males being more susceptible to chancroids, venereal sores caused by a bacterial infection on the penis, urethra or anus. More information on STDs is presented in the Female Reproductive System section.

The 6 most common sexually transmitted diseases in the United States today are gonorrhea, chlamydia, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), HIV/AIDS and syphilis. Even with advances in medicine and treatments, as well as widespread education all of them are still active and prevalent today. More information on STDs in the Female Reproductive System.

Homework:

The acronym PSA stand for. Prostate specific antigen. Fibroid tumors may lead to infertility. Which physician would perform a vasectomy. Urologist. If a patient is having a cauterization procedure, Burning. A jellylike rope containing blood vessels, extending from the placenta to the cancer of the fetal abdomen is called the umbilical cord. Carcinoma in Situ occur in Stage One. HPV is a virus. Progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. Lumpectomy is surgical excision of a breast tumor. Para measures the number of pregnancies that have attained viability. Varicocele means enlargement of the veins of the spermatic cord. Chorion is the outermost membrane covering the fetus. Obstetrician performs circumcision. The third stage of childbirth is the expulsion of the placenta. Estrogen is the hormone that stimulates sexual maturation in females. A hysterectomy is a surgical removal of the uterus.

The uterus is made up of three layers of tissue -- the perimetrium, the outer layer; the myometrium, the middle layer; and the endometrium , the inner mucous layer. The outer layer is a protective layer of membranous tissue. The middle layer is really three layers of smooth muscle that move in strong downward motions. The uterus stretches during pregnancy. The endometrium is deep and velvety has an abundant supply of blood vessels and glands and is built up and broken down during the ovulation/menstruation cycle.

The external genitalia, collectively known a vulva consist of a mound of soft tissue the mons pubis which is covered by pubic hair after puberty. Two folds of skin below the mons pubis the labia majora form the borders of the vulva. Between the labia majora lie two smaller skin folds, the labia minora which merge at the top to form the foreskin of the clitoris, the female organ of sexual stimulation. The Bartholin's glands are embedded in the vaginal tissue near the vaginal os. The duct from those glands is located between the labia minora. The glands produce a lubricating fluid that bathes the vagina and surrounding vulva.

The fertilized ovum attaches to the lining of the uterus where it develops during pregnancy. At the end of its development the infant is born through the vagina or birth canal (the canal leading form the uterus to the vulva) in routine delivery; sometimes the infant is delivered surgically through the abdomen in a caesarean delivery. The organs and structures form the basic reproductive structure.

The female breast, the mammary gland is also part of the reproductive system as an accessory organ, providing mild nurse the infant (lactation) after birth. The breast was also discussed as an apocrine gland. In addition to fertilization female reproduction is controlled by hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.

Hormones

The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, the primary female hormones. In the stages before and during puberty, estrogen and progesterone play an important role in the development of mature genitalia and of secondary sex characteristics such as pubic hair and breasts. Other hormones help in childbirth and milk production.

The female reproductive system is a group of organs and glands that produce ova (singular ovum) or egg cells (female sex cells) move them to the site of fertilization and if they are fertilized by a sperm (male sex cell) nurture them until brith

The ovary (also known as the female gonad) are two small, solid, oval structures in the pelvic cavity that produce ova and secrete female hormones. The ovaries lie on either side of the uterus. In the monthly cycle of egg production on ovary usually releases only one mature ovum. In most women the ovaries alternate this release called ovulation, each month. In rare cases more eggs are released. In some women, the ovaries do not alternate regularly or do not alternate at all. The monthly production of ova or sex cells is fairly regular in most women. (In males, the production of sex cells is not cyclical. )

The sex cell or spermatozoon (plural spermatozoa) or sperm is produced in the male gonads or testes (singular testis). The testes are also called testicles and are contained within the scrotum a sac outside the body

The scrotal sack holds and protects the testes as well as regulating their temperature. If the testicles are too cold, the scrotum contracts to draw them closer to the body for warmth. If the testicles are too warm, then the scrotum relaxes to draw the testicles away from the body's heat.

At the top part of each testis is the epididymis (plural epididymes), a group of ducts for storing sperm. The sperm develop to maturity and become motile (able to move) in the epididymis. They leave the epididymis and enter a narrow tube called the vas deferens.

The sperm then travel to the seminal vesicles (which secrete material to help the sperm move) and to the ejaculatory duct leading to the prostate and the urethra. The prostate gland also secretes prostatic fluid, which provides a milky color to gland semen (a mixture of sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles, Cowper's glands and prostate) and helps the sperm move. The gland then contracts its muscular tissue during ejaculation to help the sperm exit the body.

Within the ovaries are sex cells also known as gametes. Before being released from an ovary the cells develop in a part of the ovary called the graafian follicle. These sex cells have the potential to become fertilized and develop. In their immature stage, they are called oocytes; once mature (normally 5-7 days), they are known as ova. The ovum is then released from the graafian follicle to the uterine tube or fallopian tube, the tube that leads from each ovary to the uterus.

The uterus is the female reproductive organ in which a fertilized ovum implants and develops. When the ovum is not fertilized, the lining of the uterus is released during the monthly cycle known as menstruation. this cycle is described later in this chapter.

The middle portion of the uterus is called the body. It leads to a narrow region the isthmus. The neck or lower region of the uterus is the cervix a protective body with glands that secrete mucous substances into the vagina. The cervical canal is the opening leading to the uterine cavity. Cells from the distal part of the cervical canal are collected during a routine Pap smear. The opening of the cervical canal into the vagina is called the cervical os. Cervical cancers are more likely to occur in the distal of the cervical canal and os accessible during routine Pap smears

The vagina has small transverse folds called rugae that can expand to accommodate an erect penis during intercourse or the passage of a baby during childbirth. A fold of mucous membranes the hymen, partially covers the external opening (introitus) of the vagina. It is usually ruptured during the female's first sexual intercourse but may be broken earlier during physical activity or because of use of a tampon. It may also be congenitally absent.

The most common surgery of the male reproductive system is circumcision , the removal of the foreskin or prepuce. Various cultures and religions have rituals associated with this removal. Some parents prefer to have it done in the hospital immediately after birth.

Various operations to remove cancerous or infected parts of the reproductive system are an epididymectomy removal of an epididymis; an orchiectomy or orchidectomy, removal of a testicle; a prostatectomy, removal of the prostate gland which may be done through the perineum or above the pubic bone and a transurethral resection of the perineum or above the pubic bone; and a transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), removal of a portion of the prostate through the urethra. a vasectomy is the removal of part of the vas deferns as a method of birth control. A vasovasostomy is the reversing of a vasectomy so the male regains fertility. Castration is the removal of the testicles in the male.

Orchidectomy

is an aggressive and primary surgical approach to treating testicular cancer. If the patient may still want to father children several semen samples are stored for possible future use prior to the orchidectomy.

prostatitis

is inflammation of the prostate

Prostate

is located just under the bladder and is responsible for making seminal fluid. A normal adult prostate is around the size of a walnut. During ejaculation the muscles that surround the prostate and penis contract which pushed the semen out of the penis.

Spermatogenesis

is the development of sperm cells and is accomplished within the walls of the seminiferous tubes in the testes

Prostatitis

is the medical term that is broken down into the word parts of prostato = prostate + it is = inflammation. It is a generic term that can include any prostate inflammation. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) can cause prostatitis. It is a noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland and usually occurs in middle age men.

Prostate cancer

is the most common cancer in the male reproductive system. The prostate can become enlarged from either a benign or malignant condition, otherwise known as prostatitis, so a man diagnosed with enlarged prostate with undergo a biopsy to evaluate prostate status, which determines treatment and outcome. It often goes undiagnosed and may progress to later stages which lessens the survival rate with each stage of progression

Epididymoplasty

is the term for surgical repair of the epididymis which is a tube containing sperm inside the testes

Castration

is the term used after both testicles are removed and usually results in impotence.

HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

stimulates estrogen and progesterone from corpus luteum. source placenta, embryo

Oxytocin

stimulates labor and lactation. Source pituitary gland

FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)

stimulates oocyte maturation; increasing estrogen. source pituitary

LH

stimulates testosterone secretion. source pituitary gland

Progesterone

stimulates uterine wall thickening and formation of mammary ducts. Source corpus luteum