Chapter 2; Job analysis and evaluation

From a legal perspective, courts have ruled that job analysis is necessary (Sparks, 1988) and that acceptable job analyses should:

(1) use several up-to-date sources, (2) be conducted by experts, (3) use a large number of job incumbents, and (4) cover the entire range of worker activities and qualifications Other than a meta-analysis demonstrating that job analysis ratings of specific tasks are more reliable than ratings of general work activities, little research directly comparing job analysis methods has been conducted. This lack of research is primarily because direct comparison of methods is virtually impossible: Each method yields results that differ in both the number and type of dimensions.

6. Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) A job analysis method that taps the extent to which a job involves eight types of adaptability.

- 132-item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon (2000) that taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job. The JAI has eight dimensions: 1. Handling emergencies or crisis situations 2. Handling work stress 3. Solving problems creatively 4. Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations 5. Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures 6. Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability 7. Demonstrating cultural adaptability 8. Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability Though the JAI is relatively new, it has excellent reliability and has been shown to distinguish among jobs

1) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) A structured job analysis method developed by McCormick.

- 194 items organized into six main dimensions: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other job-related variables such as work schedule, pay, and responsibility. - The level of analysis is fairly general. - PAQ tells us if a job involves interviewing but does not indicate the type of interviewing that is performed (interviewing job applicants versus interviewing a witness to a crime) or how the interview is conducted. - Results would be difficult to use for functions such as training or performance appraisal. Advantages: It is inexpensive and takes relatively little time to use. It is one of the most standardized job analysis methods, has acceptable levels of reliability, and its results for a particular position can be compared through computer analysis with thousands of other positions. Its strengths are also the source of its weaknesses. - The PAQ's instructions suggest that incumbents using the questionnaire ha

Performance Appraisal

- Another important use of job analysis is the construction of a performance appraisal instrument - As in employee selection, the evaluation of employee performance must be job related. - Employees are often evaluated with forms that use such vague categories as "dependability," "knowledge," and "initiative." The use of specific, job-related categories leads to more accurate performance appraisals that are better accepted not only by employees but also by the courts - In addition, when properly administered and utilized, job-related performance appraisals can serve as an excellent source of employee training and counseling.

Compliance with Legal Guidelines

- Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. - One legally acceptable way to directly determine job relatedness is by job analysis. No law specifically requires a job analysis, but several important guidelines and court cases mandate job analysis for all practical purposes. (1) the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (UGESP, 1978)— the HR principles designed to ensure compliance with federal standards—contain several direct references to the necessity of job analysis. Although the Uniform Guidelines are not law, courts have granted them "great deference" (2) Several court cases have discussed the concept of job-relatedness. E.g. in Griggs v. Duke Power (1971), employment decisions were based in part upon applicants' possession of a high school diploma. Because a higher percentage of Blacks than Whites did not meet this requirement, smaller percentages of blacks were hired and promoted. Thus, a suit was filed against the Duke Power Com

7. Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) A job analysis instrument that helps determine the personality requirements for a job.

- Developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed to perform job-related tasks. - It consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the "Big 5" personality dimensions (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability). - Though more research is needed, the PPRF is reliable and shows promise as a useful job analysis instrument for identifying the personality traits necessary to perform a job.

Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed

- Identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed. This information is usually gathered by obtaining previous information on the job, interviewing job incumbents, observing performance, or actually performing the job itself.

It has also been suggested that a few tasks not part of a job be placed into the task inventory; data from incumbents who rate these irrelevant tasks as part of their job are removed from the job analysis due to their carelessness

- Including "bogus tasks" is probably a good idea. - Pine (1995) included five such items in a 68-item task inventory for corrections officers and found that 45% reported performing at least one of the bogus tasks. For example, a task inventory might include "operates a Gonkulator" or "uses PARTH program to analyze data" even though no such machine or computer program actually exists. - A study by Dierdorff and Rubin (2007) found that incumbents who are low in cognitive ability and are confused about their work role (role ambiguity) are the most likely to endorse the bogus tasks on a task inventory.

Rather than using the previously discussed process, KSAOs, or competencies, can be identified using structured methods such as:

- Job Components Inventory (JCI), - Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA), - Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS), - Critical Incident Technique (CIT), and the - Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)

Job Classification

- Job analysis enables a HR professional to classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. - Job classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions.

Job Evaluation

- Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job

Job Design

- Job analysis information can be used to determine the optimal way in which a job should be performed. - What would be the best way for an employee to sit at her computer or what would be the best way for a warehouse person to lift boxes? - By analyzing a job, wasted and unsafe motions can be eliminated, resulting in higher productivity and reduced numbers of job injuries. - A job design was mentioned in Chapter 1 with the example of Frank Gilbreth, who, after studying the inconsistency with which brick masons did their work, was able to reduce from 18 to 41⁄2 the number of motions needed to lay a brick.

Chapter Summary

- Job analysis provides the foundation for such areas as performance appraisal, employee selection, training, and job design. - A properly written job description contains a job title, a brief summary, an extensive list of work activities, a list of tools and equipment, information about the work context, compensation information, performance standards, and personal requirements. - Before a job analysis is begun, decisions must be made about the type of information that will be obtained, who will conduct the job analysis, and who will participate in it. - The typical job analysis involves interviewing and observing subject-matter experts (SMEs) to determine tasks that are performed, the conditions under which they are performed, the tools and equipment needed to perform them, and the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to per- form them. - Although no job analysis method is always better than others, each is better for certain purposes. E.g. The Pos

1. Occupational Information Network (O*NET) The job analysis system used by the federal government that has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT).

- National job analysis system created by the federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), which had been in use since the 1930s. - O*NET is a major advancement in understanding the nature of work, in large part because its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at four levels: economic, organizational, occupational, and individual. - As a result, O*NET has incorporated the types of information obtained in many job analysis techniques. A chart comparing O*NET with other job analysis methods is located on this text's webpage. - O*NET includes information about the occupation (generalized work activities, work context, organizational context) and the worker characteristics (ability, work style, occupational values and interests, knowledge, skills, education) needed for success in the occupation. - O*NET also includes information about such economic factors as labor demand, labor supply, salaries, and occupational trends. = This information c

8. Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC)

- Similar to the PPRF, the 48 questions on the PIC help determine which of the seven main personality traits are needed to perform a given job. - Research on the PIC indicates that it has acceptable reliability and is able to differentiate between jobs

Methods Providing Information About (2) Tools and Equipment

- To take advantage of the PAQ's strengths while avoiding some of its problems, Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr (1983) developed the Job Components Inventory (JCI) for use in England. - More than 400 questions covering five major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision-making and responsibility. It is the only job analysis method containing a detailed section on tools and equipment. Published research on the JCI is not abundant. But it does appear to be a promising technique, with research indicating that it is reliable, can differentiate between jobs, can cluster jobs based on their similarity to one another, and, unlike the PAQ, is affected by the amount of information available to the analyst Job Components Inventory (JCI) A structured job analysis technique that concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather than on specific tasks.

Competency modeling.

- When competencies are tied to an organization's strategic initiatives and plans rather than to specific tasks, the process is called competency modeling. - Identifies the worker competencies characteristic to high performance

With a committee-based approach:

- a committee of SMEs meets to brainstorm the major duties involved in a job. - Once this has been done, the committee identifies the tasks (work-related activities) that must be completed for each of the duties. The results are then summarized in job descriptions or a job analysis report. - An excellent job analysis interview technique was developed by Ammerman (1965) and reported by Robinson (1981). The basic steps for the Ammerman technique are as follows: 1. Convene a panel of experts that includes representatives from all levels of the organization. 2. Have the panel identify the objectives and standards that are to be met by the ideal incumbent. 3. Have the panel list the specific behaviors necessary for each objective or standard to be attained. 4. Have the panel identify which of the behaviors from step 3 are "critical" to reaching the objective. 4. Have the panel rank-order the objectives on the basis of importance. These procedures will yield a set of important object

4) Functional Job Analysis (FJA) A job analysis method developed by Fine that rates the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with functions in the categories of data, people, and things.

- was initially designed by Sidney Fine (1955) as a method that could be used by the federal government to analyze and compare thousands of jobs. - The FJA process begins similarly to many job analysis methods: a small group of subject matter experts meets to identify the key functions of a job (what gets done) as well as the tasks performed to complete each function - What makes FJA unique, is that once the SMEs have identified these functions and tasks, they assign a percentage of time the incumbent spends on three functions: data (information and ideas), people (clients, customers, and coworkers), and things (machines, tools, and equipment). - An analyst is given 100 points to allot to the three functions. The points are usually assigned in multiples of 5, with each function receiving a minimum of 5 points. Once the points have been assigned, the highest level at which the job incumbent functions is then chosen from the chart shown in Table 2.6.

Job description should contain the following 8 sections

1) Job title 2) Brief summary 3) Work Activities 4) Tools and Equipment Used 5) Job Context 6) Work Performance 7) Compensation Information 8) Job Competencies

Methods Providing Information About (4) Competencies

1. Occupational Information Network (O*NET) The job analysis system used by the federal government that has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). 2. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) The job analysis method developed by John Flanagan that uses written reports of good and bad employee behavior. 3. Job Components Inventory (JCI) 4. Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) A 33-item questionnaire developed by Lopez that identifies traits necessary to suc- successfully perform a job. 5. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) A job analysis method in which jobs are rated on the basis of the abilities needed to perform them. 6. Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) A job analysis method that taps the extent to which a job involves eight types of adaptability. 7. Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) A job analysis instrument that helps determine the personality requirements for a job. 8. Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC)

Regardless of whether individual or group interviews are used, certain guidelines should be followed that will make the interview go more smoothly..

1. Prepare for the interview by announcing the job analysis to the employees well in advance by selecting a quiet and private interview location. 2. Open the interview by establishing rapport, putting the worker at ease, and explaining the purpose of the interview. 3. Conduct the interview by asking open-ended questions, using easy- to-understand vocabulary, and allowing sufficient time for the employee to talk and answer questions. Avoid being condescending and disagreeing with the incumbent. Most workers are proud of their jobs and are willing to talk about them in great detail. Once the initial apprehensions and jitters are over, most job analysis interviews go well. A good way to start the actual interview is by asking the employee to describe what she does from the moment she first enters the parking lot at work to the moment she arrives back home. A question such as this provides some structure for the employee in recalling the various aspects of her job and also provides the

Thus, the comparative research that has been conducted has focused on the opinions of job analysts. Survey research by Levine, Ash, and their colleagues (Levine, Ash, & Bennett, 1980; Levine, Ash, Hall, & Sistrunk, 1983) has found the following:

1. The PAQ is seen as the most standardized technique and the CIT the least standardized. 2. The CIT takes the least amount of job analyst training and task analysis the most. 3. The PAQ is the least costly method and the CIT the most. 4. The PAQ takes the least amount of time to complete and task analysis the most. 5. Task analysis has the highest-quality results and TTA the lowest. 6. Task analysis reports are the longest and job-elements reports the shortest. 7. The CIT has been rated the most useful and the PAQ the least. 8. Task analysis gives the best overall job picture and the PAQ the worst. Keep in mind, however, that these findings were based on users' opinions rather than on actual empirical comparison and that many of the newer (post-1980) job analysis methods were not included in the Levine and Ash studies.

Conducting a Sex and Race Equity Study

1st step in conducting a salary equity analysis for an organization is to place jobs into the Pay Analysis Groups mentioned previously. This task takes considerable time, as one needs to use salary grades to determine similarity of worth and use job descriptions to determine similarity of duties and responsibilities. The goal of these analyses is to determine if the average salary for men differs significantly from the average salary for women, and whether the average salary for Whites differs from the average salary for Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians. This analysis is conducted for each PAG, rather than the organization as a whole. Two types of statistical analyses are typically used: regression and Fisher's exact tests. For smaller PAGs a Fisher's exact test is used to compare gender and race differences in the percentage of employees above the median salary for the PAG. If there are at least 30 employees in the PAG and at least 5 employees in each sex or race group (i.e., 5 men

Personpower Planning: One important but seldom employed use of job analysis is to determine worker mobility within an organization.

= If individuals are hired for a particular job, to what other jobs can they expect to eventually be promoted and become successful? Peter Principle The idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they reach the level at which they are not competent—in other words, their highest level of incompetence.

SME conference

A group job analysis interview consisting of subject-matter experts (SMEs). Job analysis interviews come in two main forms: individual and group. In the individual interview, the job analyst interviews only one employee at a time. In the group interview, or SME conference, a larger number of employees are interviewed together. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, individual interviews tend to yield similar results to group interviews.

To logically link KSAOs to tasks

A group of SMEs brainstorm the KSAOs needed to perform each task. E.g. a group of police officers might consider the task of "writing accident reports" and determine that grammar skills, spelling skills, legible handwriting, and knowledge of accidents are the KSAOs needed for a police officer to perform this task. Once the list of essential KSAOs has been developed, another group of SMEs is given the list and asked to rate the extent to which each of the KSAOs is essential for performing the job.

Ammerman technique

A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker.

Job participation

A job analysis method in which the job analyst actually performs the job being analyzed.

Observations

A job analysis method in which the job analyst watches job incumbents perform their jobs. + It lets the job analyst actually see the worker do her job and thus obtain information that the worker may have forgotten to mention during the interview. It's especially important because many employees have difficulty describing exactly what they do; to them, performing their job is second nature and takes little thought. - The method's disadvantage is that it is very obtrusive. Observing someone without their knowledge is difficult.

Job crafting

A process in which employees unofficially change their job duties to better fit their interests and skills.

Task inventory

A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and time spent.

Salary surveys

A questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees in positions similar to those in the organization sending the survey.

2) Job Structure Profile (JSP) A revised version of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) designed to be used more by the job analyst than by the job incumbent.

A revised version of the PAQ was developed by Patrick and Moore (1985). The major changes in the revision, which is called the Job Structure Profile (JSP), include item content and style, new items to increase the discrimina- tory power of the intellectual and decision-making dimensions, and an emphasis on having a job analyst, rather than the incumbent, use the JSP. Research by JSP's developers indicates that the instrument is reliable, but little research has been con-ducted on the JSP since 1985.

Importance of job analysis

A thorough job analysis, also called work analysis, is the foundation for almost all human resources activities. It is difficult to imagine how one could write a job description, select employees, evaluate performance, or conduct training programs without knowing the tasks an employee performs, the conditions under which they are performed, and the competencies needed to perform the tasks. A thorough job analysis provides such information. Importance of job analysis: - Writing Job descriptions - Employee selection - Training - Personpower planning - Performance Appraisal - Job Classification - Job evaluation - Job design

4. Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) A 33-item questionnaire developed by Lopez that identifies traits necessary to successfully perform a job.

An approach similar to the JCI is the Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) - This method is available only by hiring a particular consulting firm, but its unique style makes it worthy of mentioning. - 33 items identify the traits that are necessary for the successful performance of a job. - The 33 items cover five trait categories: physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social. The TTA's greatest advantages are that it is short and reliable and can correctly identify important traits The TTA's greatest disadvantage is that it is not available commercially. Because the TTA also focuses on traits, its main uses are in the development of an employee selection system or a career plan.

3) Job Elements Inventory (JEI) A structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel that is similar to the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read.

Another instrument designed as an alternative to the PAQ is the Job Elements Inventory (JEI), developed by Cornelius and Hakel (1978). - 153 items and has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade education - Research comparing the JEI with the PAQ indicates that the scores from each method are very similar - thus, the JEI may be a better replacement for the difficult-to-read PAQ. - But as mentioned with the JSP, much more research is needed before conclusions can be confidently drawn.

5. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) A job analysis method in which jobs are rated on the basis of the abilities needed to perform them.

Based on more than 30 years of research, the Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) requires incumbents or job analysts to view a series of abilities such as the one shown in Figure 2.4, and to rate the level of ability needed to perform the job. These ratings are performed for 73 distinct cognitive, physical, psychomotor, sensory-perceptual, and social/interpersonal abilities and knowledge. The F-JAS is easy to use by incumbents or trained analysts, demonstrates acceptable levels of reliability, and is supported by years of research. Its advantages over TTA are that it is more detailed, is commercially available, is available in several languages, and can be completed online.

Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights

Because some factors are more important than others, weights must be assigned to each factor and to each level within a factor. Process for doing this: 1. A job evaluation committee determines the total number of points that will be distributed among the factors. Usually, the number is some multiple of 100 (e.g., 100, 500, 1,000) and is based on the number of compensable factors. The greater the number of factors, the greater the number of points. 2. Each factor is weighted by assigning a number of points. The more important the factor, the greater the number of points that will be assigned. 3. The number of points assigned to a factor is then divided into each of the levels. If 100 points had been assigned to the factor of education, then 20 points (100 points/5 degrees) would be assigned to each level. An example of this procedure is shown in Table 2.12. The job evaluation committee takes the job descriptions for each job and assigns points based on the factors and degrees create

Comparable worth

Comparable worth analysis is normally conducted by comparing jobs with similar worth (salary grade), field of knowledge (job family), and job duties (job function). Prior to 2013, the OFCCP called such groups similarly situated employee groups (SSEGs) but now refers to them as Pay Analysis Groups (PAGs). Comparable worth is an issue very much related to the discussion of job evaluation. Comparable worth is often in the news because some groups claim that female workers are paid less than male workers. This perception of pay inequity stems from the statistic that, on average, full-time female workers in 2013 made only 82.1% of what full-time male workers were paid. On average, African American workers and Hispanics made less than Asian Americans and whites. As shown in Table 2.14, the pay gap, which was narrowing for many years, seems to have stagnated at approximately 81% for women, 79% for African Americans, and 72% for Hispanics. It should be noted that Asians make more money th

Organizational Analysis

During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain problems within an organization. For example, during a job analysis interview, an employee may indicate that she does not know how she is evaluated or to whom she is supposed to report. The discovery of such lapses in organizational communication can then be used to correct problems and help an organization function better. E.g. While conducting job analysis interviews of credit union positions, job analyst Deborah Peggans discovered that none of the workers knew how their job performances were evaluated. This let the organization know it had not done an adequate job of communicating performance standards to its employees.

Currently, KSAOs = competencies. In the old days, KSAOs = job specifications (job specs). There may be some disagreement among I/O psychologists, but the terms "KSAOs," "competencies," and "job specs" can be used interchangeably and there is no real difference among the three

E.g. A police officer accurately shooting a gun (skill), the police officer would need to hold the gun properly and allow for such external conditions as the target distance and wind conditions (knowledge), and have the hand strength, steadiness, and vision necessary to hold the gun, pull the trigger, and aim properly (abilities). To carry the gun, the officer would need to have a weapons certification (other characteristics). Determining important KSAOs can be done in 2ways: 1) Logically linking tasks to KSAOs 2) Using prepackaged questionnaires.

Remember: job evaluation concerns the worth of the job itself, not the worth of a person in the job !!!

E.g., suppose a salary survey reveals that the going rate for a job falls within the range of $30,000 to $40,000, and an organization, deciding to be at the upper end of the market, sets its range for the position at $37,000 to $42,000. Decisions must then be made regarding where in the $5,000 range each particular employee will be paid. This decision is based on such factors as years of experience, years with the company, special skills, education, local cost of living, and performance level. We have earlier discussed the amount of money a job is worth: this amount is called direct compensation. Employees are also compensated in other ways, such as pay for time not worked (e.g., holidays, vacation, sick days), deferred income (e.g., Social Security and pension plans), health protection such as medical and dental insurance, and perquisites ("perks") such as a company car (Martocchio, 2014). Consequently, a job with a direct compensation of $30,000 might actually be worth more th

Scales Used to Rate KSAOs for Law Enforcement

If a scale such as that shown in Table 2.5 is used, KSAOs with an average score of .5 or less are eliminated from further consideration. As you can see in Table 2.5, it is also important for the SMEs to determine when each KSAO is needed. Using data from the table, KSAOs that receive average ratings of 2.5 or higher will be part of the employee selection process, KSAOs with average ratings between 1.5 and 2.49 will be taught at the police academy, and KSAOs with average ratings between .5 and 1.49 will be learned on the job during the officer's probationary period.

Determining Sex and Race Equity

In addition to analyses of internal and external equity, pay audits should also be conducted to ensure that employees are not paid differently on the basis of gender or race. For organizations with 50 or more employees and federal contracts in excess of $50,000, compensation analyses are mandatory each year. The Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) monitors these analyses to ensure that they are conducted and that contractors are not discriminating on the basis of pay. 2 types of audits should be conducted: one that looks at pay rates of employees within positions with identical duties (equal pay for equal work) and a second that looks at pay rates of employees in jobs of similar worth and responsibility (comparable worth).

3. Job Components Inventory (JCI) !!!

In addition to information about tools and equipment used on the job, which were discussed earlier, the JCI also provides information about the perceptual, physical, mathematical, communication, decision making, and responsibil- ity skills needed to perform the job.

Using Other Job Analysis Methods

In the previous pages, the most common method for conducting a job analysis was discussed. - It provides great information, BUT it can be rather lengthy and unstructured. - To save time, increase structure, or supplement information obtained from interviews, observations, and task analysis, other job analysis methods are available. - These methods tend to provide information on one of four specific factors that are commonly included in a job description: (1) worker activities, (2) tools and equipment used, (3) work environment, and (4) competencies.

Determining Internal Pay Equity

Internal pay equity involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly. The difficulty in this process, of course, is determining the worth of each job.

If the results of the regression analysis indicate that the merit variables do not explain sex or race differences in salary, one still cannot conclude that discrimination has occurred -->

It could be that there are valid factors involved in the differences (e.g., the economy at the time of hire) that were not entered into the regression. However, in the absence of a valid explanation, salary adjustments may be in order.

Job analysis interview

Obtaining information about a job by talking to a person per- forming it.

Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor

Once the compensable factors have been selected, the next step is to determine the levels for each factor. For a factor such as education, the levels are easy to determine (e.g., high school diploma, associate's degree, bachelor's degree). For factors such as responsibility, a considerable amount of time and discussion may be required to determine the levels.

Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs

Once the important KSAOs have been identified, the next step is to determine the best methods to tap the KSAOs needed at the time of hire. These methods will be used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers. The average ratings obtained from step 4 will be used to weight test scores. That is, a test tapping a KSAO with a rating of 2.9 should receive more weight than a test tapping a KSAO with a rating of 2.5.

Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs

Once the task analysis is completed and a job analyst has a list of tasks that are essential for the proper performance of a job, the next step is to identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks. 1. Knowledge - A body of information needed to perform a task. 2. Skill - The proficiency to perform a learned task. 3. Ability - The basic capacity for performing a wide range of tasks, acquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill. 4. Other characteristics - Factors that are not knowledge, skills, or abilities such as personality, willingness, interest, and degrees. They include such personal factors as personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience.

Step 3: Rate Task Statements

Once the task statements have been written (usually including some 200 tasks), the next step is to conduct a task analysis—using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being performed. E.g. consider the task accurately shoots a gun. For a police officer, this task occurs infrequently, but when it does, its importance is paramount. If a frequency scale alone were used, shooting a gun might not be covered in training. - Although many types of scales can be used, research suggests that many of the scales tap similar types of information = using the two scales of frequency of occurrence and importance should be sufficient. In fact, rather than asking for ratings of frequency of occurrence or relative time spent on a task, some researchers advise that the task inventory should simply ask, "Do you perform this task?". Raters tend to agree on ratings of task importance but not on time spent After a representative

Step 2: Write Task Statements

Once the tasks have been identified, the next step is to write the task statements that will be used in the task inventory and included in the job description. At the minimum, a properly written task statement must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). Often they will also include such components as where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done. Characteristics of well-written task statements: - One action should be done to one object. E.g. "Types correspondence to be sent to vendors". - Written at a level that can be read and understood by a person with the same reading ability as the typical job incumbent. - All task statements should be written in the same tense. - The task statement should include the tools and equipment used to complete the task. - Task statements should not be competencies (e.g., "Be a good writer"). - Task statements should not be a policy (e.g., "Treats people nicely"). - The

Writing Job Descriptions

One of the written products of a job analysis is a job description: - a brief, two- to five-page summary of the tasks and job requirements found in the job analysis. - job analysis is the process of determining the work activities and requirements, and a job description is the written result of the job analysis. - Job analyses and job descriptions are the basis for many HR activities, including employee selection, evaluation, training, and work design.

Subject-matter experts (SMEs)

Sources such as supervisors and incumbents who are knowledgeable about a job. The most common method of conducting a job analy- sis is to interview subject-matter experts (SMEs). SMEs are people who are knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level management. Job analysis interviews differ greatly from employment inter-views in that the purpose of the job analysis interview is to obtain information about the job itself rather than about the person doing the job.

A complete discussion of all job evaluation methods is beyond the scope of this text ->we'll stick to a discussion of the most commonly used method.

Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights

Conducting a Job Analysis: Steps

Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed Step 2: Write Task Statements Step 3: Rate Task Statements Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs

Methods Providing General Information About (1) Worker Activities

Strategy discussed previously yields specific information about the tasks and activities performed by an incumbent in a particular job. Though such detailed information is ideal, obtaining it can be both time-consuming and expensive. As an alternative: questionnaires analyzing jobs at a more general level. This general analysis saves time and money and allows jobs to be more easily compared with one another than is the case if interviews, observations, job participation, or task analysis are used. 1) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) A structured job analysis method developed by McCormick. 2) Job Structure Profile (JSP) A revised version of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) designed to be used more by the job analyst than by the job incumbent. 3) Job Elements Inventory (JEI) A structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel that is similar to the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read. 4) Functional Job Analysis (FJA) A job analysis

Example of Task Analysis Ratings

Tasks will not be included in the job description if their average frequency rating is 0.5 or below. Tasks will not be included in the final task inventory if they have either an average rating of 0.5 or less on either the frequency (F) or importance (I) scales or an average combined rating (CR) of less than 2. Using these criteria, tasks 1, 2, and 4 in Table 2.4 would be included in the job description, and tasks 2 and 4 would be included in the final task inventory used in the next step of the job analysis.

2. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) The job analysis method developed by John Flanagan that uses written reports of good and bad employee behavior.

The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was developed and first used by John Flanagan and his students at the University of Pittsburgh in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The CIT is used to discover actual incidents of job behav- ior that make the difference between a job's successful or unsuccessful performance (Flanagan, 1954). This technique can be conducted in many ways, but the basic pro- cedure is as follows: 1. Job incumbents each generate 1-5incidents of both excellent and poor performance that they have seen on the job. They can be obtained using logbooks, questionnaires, or interviews; research has shown that the method used makes little difference. Questionnaires are usually used because they are the easiest. A convenient way to word requests for critical incidents is by asking incumbents to think of times they saw workers perform in an especially outstanding way and then to write down exactly what occurred. Incumbents are then asked to do the same for times they saw workers

Direct compensation

The amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth)

Evaluation of Methods

The best method to use in analyzing a job appears to be related to the end use of the job analysis information. = different methods are best for different uses— 1. Worker-oriented methods, such as: CIT, JCI, and TTA, are the best for employee selection and performance appraisal; 2. Job-oriented methods, such as task analysis, are best for work design and writing job descriptions. To get the most out of a job analysis, several techniques should be used so that information on each of the job description sections can be obtained.

Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors

The first step in evaluating a job is to decide what factors differentiate the relative worth of jobs. Possible compensable job factors include the following: - Level of responsibility - Physical demands - Mental demands - Education requirements - Training and experience requirements - Working conditions Compensable job factors Factors, such as responsibility and education requirements, that differentiate the relative worth of jobs. The philosophical perspectives of the job evaluator can affect these factors. Some evaluators argue that the most important compensable factor is responsibility and that physical demands are unimportant. Others argue that education is the most important. The choice of compensable factors thus is often more philosophical than empirical.

Comparable worth

The idea that jobs requiring the same level of skill and responsibility should be paid the same re- gardless of supply and demand.

Job analyst

The person conducting the job analysis.

Job evaluation

The process of determining the monetary worth of a job. -> Typically done in two stages: (1) determining internal pay equity and (2) determining external pay equity.

Task analysis

The process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained.

Methods Providing Information About the (3) Work Environment

The techniques discussed so far provide information about the activities that are performed and the equipment used to perform them. - The job analyst still needs information about the conditions under which the activities are performed. E.g. 2 employees might perform the task "delivers mail," yet one might do it by carrying 50-pound mail bags in very hot weather whereas the other delivers mail by driving a golf cart through an air-conditioned warehouse. To obtain information about the work environment, a job analyst might use the AET which means "ergonomic job analysis procedure." By ergonomic, we mean that the instrument is primarily concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects. - Developed in Germany by Rohmert and Landau (1983), the AET is a 216-item, standardized questionnaire that analyzes a job along the dimensions shown in Table 2.7. Sample items from the AET can be found in Table 2.8. Although the AET appears to be a promising method for ob

8) Job Competencies

This section contains what are commonly called job specifications or competencies. These are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) (such as inter- est, personality, and training) that are necessary to be successful on the job. - Competencies are determined by deciding what types of KSAOs are needed to perform the tasks identified in the job analysis. - These KSAOs can be determined through a combination of logic, research, and use of specific job analysis techniques discussed later in this chapter. - The competencies section should be divided into two subsections. The first contains KSAOs that an employee must have at the time of hiring. The second subsection contains the KSAOs that are an important part of the job but can be obtained after being hired. The first set of KSAOs is used for employee selection and the second for training purposes Job specifications A relatively dated term that refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to succes

7) Compensation Information

This section of the job description should contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to determine salary. These concepts will be described later in the chapter. The employee's actual salary or salary range should not be listed on the job description. Grade = A cluster of jobs of similar worth.

Research indicates that all but about 6% of the gap between men and women can be explained by such factors as men being in the workforce longer, having a higher percentage of full-time jobs, and working more hours in a year

Thus, sex differences in pay are often less an issue of pay discrimination by organizations than one of vocational choice and educational opportunity discrimination. To alleviate gender differences in pay, it is essential that young women be encouraged to enter historically male-dominated fields (assembly lines, management, police) and that young men be encouraged to enter historically female-dominated fields (nursing, clerical, elementary education). Furthermore, because men are more inclined to negotiate such things as starting salaries than women, some of the pay gap can be narrowed either by not allowing applicants to negotiate salaries or by teaching all applicants how to negotiate salaries.

Salary surveys

To determine external equity, organizations use salary surveys. Sent to other organizations, these surveys ask how much an organization pays its employees in various positions. An organization can either construct and send out its own survey or use the results of surveys conducted by trade groups, an option that many organizations choose. On the basis of the survey results an organization can decide where it wants to be in relation to the compensation policies of other organizations (often called market position). = That is, an organization might choose to offer compensation at higher levels to attract the best applicants as well as keep current employees from going to other organizations. Other organizations might choose to pay at the "going rate" so that they have a reasonable chance of competing for applicants, even though they will often lose the best applicants to higher-paying organizations. Market position is most important in a good economy where jobs are plentiful a

Wage trend line

Wage trend line A line that represents the ideal relationship between the number of points that a job has been assigned (using the point method of evaluation) and the salary range for that job. Wage trend lines are drawn based on the results of a regression formula in which salary is pre-dicted by the number of job analysis points. Jobs whose point values fall well below the line (as with Job D in Figure 2.5) are considered underpaid ("green circled") and are immediately assigned higher salary levels. Jobs with point values well above the line (as with Job H) are considered overpaid ("red circled") and the salary level is decreased once current jobholders leave.

Determining External Pay Equity

With external equity, the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other organizations). External equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees. In other words, it must be competitive with the compensation plans of other organizations. That is, a fast-food restaurant that pays cooks $8 an hour will probably have trouble hiring and keeping high-caliber employees if other fast-food restaurants in the area pay $10 an hour.

The CIT is an excellent addition to a job analysis because

because the actual critical incidents can be used for future activities such as performance appraisal and training. The CIT's greatest drawback is that its emphasis on the difference between excellent and poor performance ignores routine duties. Thus, the CIT cannot be used as the sole method of job analysis.