Chapter 2: Recognizing Arguments

The Common Knowledge Test

First, is the statements that the passage seeks to prove or explain a matter of common knowledge? If it is, the passage is probably an explanation rather than an argument.

The Principle of Charity

Fourth, the principle of charity, as we have seen, requires that we always interpret unclear passages generously and, in particular, that we never interpret a passage as a bad argument when the evidence reasonably permits us to interpret is as not an argument at all.

Report

It's purpose is to simply convey information about a subject. A report can be about arguments. That is, merely reporting another person's argument rather than endorsing it or putting it forth as their own. Example: "Sweeping changes occurred in demographics, economics, culture, and society during the last quarter of the 20th century. The nation aged, and more of it's people, gravitated to the sunbelt..."

The Past Even Test

Second, is the statement that the passage is seeking to prove or explain an event that occurred in the past? If so, the passage is probably an explanation rather than an argument because it is much more common to try to explain why past events have occurred rather than why they have occurred.

Unsupported Assertions

Statements about what a speaker or writer happens to believe. Such statements can be true or false, rational or irrational, but they are parts of arguments only if the speaker or writer claims that they follow form, or support, other claims. Example" "I believe that it is not dying that people are afraid of. Something else, something more unsettling and more tragic than dying that frightens us. We are afraid of never having lived, of coming to the end of our days with the sense that we were never really alive, that we never figured out what life was for."

How does one distinguish arguments from explanations?

There are four basic tests.

The Author's Intent Test

Third, is it the speaker's or writer's intent to prove or establish that something is the case-- that is, to provide reasons or evidence for accepting a claim as true? Or is it his intent to explain why something is the case-- that is to offer an account of why some event has occurred or why something is the way it is? If the former, the passage is an argument; if the latter, the passage is an explanation.

Argument

a group of statements, one of more or which (called the premises) are intended to prove or support another statement (called the conclusion) -claim defended with reasons An argument is not reports, unsupported assumptions, conditional statements, illustrations, explanations.

Statement

a sentence that can be viewed as either true of false

Ought imperative

a sentence that has the form of an imperative or command but is intended to assert a value or ought judgement about what is good or bad or right or wrong. - imperative sentences are not statements if they are intended as orders, suggestions, or exhortations. They are statements if they are intended as pieces of advice about what someone ought to or ought not to do.

Rhetorical Question

a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement

Conclusion indicators

indicate that conclusions are being offered examples: therefore, hence, so, it follows that, that is why, wherefore, as a result, this being so, thus, consequently, accordingly, for this reason, which shows that, this implies that, this suggests that, we may infer that example sentence: "Your parents aren't here, (so) stop worrying and enjoy your life"

Premise indicators

indicate that premises are being offered examples: since, for, seeing that, inasmuch as, because, given that, considering that, as, in view of the fact that, as indicated by, judging from, on account of example sentence: "Having fun can be the spice of life but is not its main course, (because) when it is over, nothing of lasting value remains."

Illustrations

intended to provide examples of a claim, rather than prove or support the claim. It's purpose is not to provide convincing evidence for a conclusion but merely to provide a few notable or representative examples of a claim. Example: "Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daisies and day lilies are delicious."

Conditional Statements

it is an if-then statement it is made up of two basic parts, the antecedent (the statement following the word if) and the consequent (the statement following the word then). they do not need to be explicitly in if then format. example: "If it rains, then the picnic will be cancelled"

Premises

statements in an argument offered as evidence and or reasons why we should accept another statements (the conclusion)

Conclusion

the statement in an argument that the premises are intended to prove or support.

Explanations

tries to show why something that is the case, not to prove that it is the case. Explanations have two parts: the explanandum (The statement that is explained) and the explanans (the statement that does the explaining). Example: "I fell down because I tripped." Explandum: "I fell down" Explanans: "I tripped"

Indicator words

words or phrases that provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put forward.