CHAPTER 21 STUDY GUIDE ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION TEST REVIEW
Lavoisier-system for naming chemical elements.
Antoine Lavoisier invented a system for naming chemical elements still used today. Many people consider him the founder of modern chemistry.
Vesalius and William Harvey.
A revolution in medicine began in the sixteenth century. During this time Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey added to the understanding of human anatomy. By dissecting human bodies at the University of Padua, Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body. William Harvey showed that the heart—not the liver, as Galen had thought—was the beginning point for the circulation of blood. He also proved that the same blood flows through the veins and arteries and makes a complete circuit through the body.
Answered question "what are planets made of".
An Italian scientist answered the first question. As the first European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope, mathematician Galileo Galilei made a series of remarkable discoveries: mountains on Earth's moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. Galileo's observations seemed to destroy another aspect of the Ptolemaic conception. Heavenly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light. They now appeared to be composed of material substance, just as Earth was.
Used telescope.
As the first European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope, mathematician Galileo Galilei made a series of remarkable discoveries: mountains on Earth's moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. Galileo's observations seemed to destroy another aspect of the Ptolemaic conception. Heavenly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light. They now appeared to be composed of material substance, just as Earth was.
Scientific Method.
Before beginning this reasoning, scientists try to free their minds of opinions that might distort the truth. Then they start with detailed facts and proceed toward general principles. From observing natural events, scientists propose hypotheses, or possible explanations, for the events. Then systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test the hypotheses would lead to correct general principles.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
By 1748, all parties were exhausted and agreed to the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle. The treaty guaranteed the return of all occupied territories but Silesia to their original owners. Prussia's refusal to return Silesia meant yet another war, for Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss. She rebuilt her army while working diplomatically to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France. In 1756 Maria Theresa achieved what was soon labeled a diplomatic revolution.
Described organs through use of dissection.
By dissecting human bodies at the University of Padua, Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body.
Catherine the Great.
Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. She was an intelligent woman who was familiar with the works of the philosophes and seemed to favor enlightened reforms. She considered the idea of a new law code that would recognize the principle of equality of all people in the eyes of the law. In the end, however, Catherine did nothing because she knew that her success depended on the support of the Russian nobility. Her policy of favoring the landed nobility led to worse conditions for the Russian peasants and eventually to rebellion. Led by an illiterate Cossack (a Russian warrior), Yemelyan Pugachov, the rebellion spread across southern Russia but soon collapsed. Catherine took stronger measures against the peasants. Rural reform was halted, and serfdom was expanded into newer parts of the empire. Catherine proved to be a worthy successor to Peter the Great in her policies of territorial expansion. Russia spread southward to the Black Sea by defeating the Turks under Catherine's rule. To the west, Russia gained about 50 percent of Poland's territory, with the remainder split between Prussia and Austria. The Polish state disappeared until after World War I. Of the rulers under discussion, only Joseph II sought truly radical changes based on Enlightenment ideas. Both Frederick II and Catherine II liked to talk about enlightened reforms. They even attempted some, but their priority was maintaining the existing system.
Need to publish anonymously.
Cavendish published under her own name at a time many female writers had to publish anonymously. Her contribution to philosophy is widely recognized today; however, many intellectuals of the time did not take her work seriously.
Montesquieu.
Charles-Louis de Secondat, the baron de Montesquieu, was a French noble. His famous work The Spirit of the Laws (1748) was a study of governments. In it, Montesquieu tried to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings. Montesquieu stated that England's government had three branches: the executive (the monarch), the legislative (Parliament), and the judicial (the courts of law).
Heliocentric.
Copernicus, a mathematician, thought that his heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system. In his system, the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe. The planets revolved around the sun. The moon, however, revolved around Earth.
Diderot.
Denis Diderot went to the University of Paris. His father hoped Denis would pursue a career in law or the Church. He did neither. Instead, he became a writer, covering many subjects. Diderot's most famous contribution to the Enlightenment was the Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, a 28-volume collection of knowledge that he edited. Published between 1751 and 1772, the purpose of the Encyclopedia, according to Diderot, was to "change the general way of thinking."
"I think therefore I am".
Descartes emphasized the importance of his own mind, accepting only those things that his reason said were true. From his first principle—"I think, therefore I am"—Descartes used his reason to arrive at a second principle. He argued that because "the mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different."
Mind and Matter are separate.
Descartes's idea that mind and matter were completely separate allowed scientists to view matter as dead or inert. That is, matter was something that was totally detached from the mind and that could be investigated independently by reason.
Music.
Eighteenth-century Europe produced some of the world's most enduring music. Two geniuses of the second half of the eighteenth century, Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, were innovators who wrote classical music rather than the baroque music of Bach and Handel. Haydn spent most of his adult life as musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes. Visits to England introduced him to a world in which musicians wrote for public concerts rather than princely patrons. This "liberty," as he called it, led him to write two great works, The Creation and The Seasons. Mozart was truly a child prodigy. He gave his first harpsichord concert at age six and wrote his first opera at twelve. His failure to get a regular patron to support him financially made his life miserable. Nevertheless, he wrote music passionately. His works The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni are three of the world's greatest operas. Haydn remarked to Mozart's father, "Your son is the greatest composer known to me.
Maria Theresa.
Empress Maria Theresa, who inherited the throne in 1740, worked to centralize and strengthen the state. While not open to the philosophes' calls for reform, she did work to improve the condition of the serfs.
Joseph II.
Empress Maria Theresa, who inherited the throne in 1740, worked to centralize and strengthen the state. While not open to the philosophes' calls for reform, she did work to improve the condition of the serfs. Her son, Joseph II, believed in the need to sweep away anything standing in the path of reason: "I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire." Joseph abolished serfdom and eliminated the death penalty. He established the principle of equality of all before the law and enacted religious reforms, including religious toleration.
Women's Rights.
For centuries, male intellectuals had argued that the nature of women made them inferior to men and made male domination of women necessary. By the eighteenth century, however, female thinkers began to express their ideas about improving the condition of women.
Inductive Reasoning.
Francis Bacon believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities. Instead, they should learn about nature by using inductive reasoning— proceeding from the particular to the general. Knowledge of the natural world should be achieved through observation and experimentation
Bacon and Scientific Method.
Francis Bacon believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities. Instead, they should learn about nature by using inductive reasoning— proceeding from the particular to the general. Knowledge of the natural world should be achieved through observation and experimentation.
Rene Descartes.
French philosopher René Descartes who brought a philosophical perspective to the natural sciences. He began by considering the doubt and uncertainty that seemed to be everywhere in the confusion of the seventeenth century. He ended with a philosophy that largely dominated Western thought until the twentieth century. The starting point for Descartes's new system was doubt. In his most famous work, Discourse on Method, written in 1637, Descartes decided to set aside all that he had learned and to begin again. One fact seemed to him to be beyond doubt—his own existence.
War in Europe and War in Americas
French-Austrian rivalry had been a fact of European diplomacy since the late sixteenth century. However, two new rivalries now replaced the old one: the rivalry of Britain and France over colonial empires and the rivalry of Austria and Prussia over Silesia. France abandoned Prussia and formed an alliance with Austria. Russia, which saw Prussia as a major threat to Russian goals in central Europe, joined the new alliance with France and Austria. In turn, Britain allied with Prussia. This diplomatic revolution of 1756 led to another worldwide war. The war had three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, and North America. Europe witnessed the clash of the two major alliances: the British and Prussians against the Austrians, Russians, and French. The superb army and military skill of Frederick the Great of Prussia enabled him at first to defeat the Austrian, French, and Russian armies. Under attack from three different directions, however, his forces were gradually worn down. Frederick faced disaster until Peter III, a new Russian czar who greatly admired Frederick, withdrew Russian troops from the conflict. This withdrawal created a stalemate and led to the desire for peace. The European war ended in 1763. All occupied territories were returned to their original owners, except Silesia. Austria officially recognized Prussia's permanent control of Silesia. The greatest conflicts of the Seven Years' War took place in North America. On the North American continent, the French and British colonies were set up differently. The French government administered French North America (Canada and Louisiana) as a vast trading area. It was valuable for its fur, leather, fish, and timber, but its colonies were thinly populated. British North America consisted of thirteen prosperous colonies on the eastern coast of what is now the United States. Unlike the French colonies, the British colonies were more populated, containing more than one million people by 1750. The British and French fought over two main areas in North America. One consisted of the waterways of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which were protected by the fortress of Louisbourg and by forts that guarded French Quebec. The other area they fought over was the unsettled Ohio River valley. The French scored a number of victories at first. British fortunes were revived, however, by the efforts of William Pitt the Elder, Britain's prime minister. Pitt was convinced that the French colonial empire would have to be destroyed for Britain to create its own colonial empire. A series of British victories soon followed. In 1759 British forces under General Wolfe defeated the French under General Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, outside Quebec. Both generals died in the battle. The British went on to seize Montreal, the Great Lakes area, and the Ohio River valley. The French were forced to make peace. By the Treaty of Paris, the French transferred Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to England. Spain, an ally of the French, transferred Spanish Florida to British control. In return, the French gave their Louisiana territory to the Spanish. By 1763, Great Britain had become the world's greatest colonial power.
Rationalism.
From this idea came the principle of the separation of mind and matter (and of mind and body). Descartes's idea that mind and matter were completely separate allowed scientists to view matter as dead or inert. That is, matter was something that was totally detached from the mind and that could be investigated independently by reason. Descartes has rightly been called the father of modern rationalism. This system of thought is based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge.
Heretic.
Galileo's discoveries, published in The Starry Messenger in 1610, did more to make Europeans aware of the new view of the universe than did the works of Copernicus and Kepler. But in the midst of his newfound fame, Galileo found himself under suspicion by the Catholic Church. The Church ordered him to abandon the Copernican idea, which threatened the Church's entire conception of the universe. In the Copernican view, humans were no longer at the center of the universe; God was no longer in a specific place.
God at one end of universe.
God was at one end of the universe, then, and humans were at the center.
Religion.
In England, the most famous new religious and evangelical movement— Methodism—was the work of John Wesley, an Anglican minister. Wesley had a mystical experience in which "the gift of God's grace" assured him of salvation. This experience led him to become a missionary to the English people to bring them the "glad tidings" of salvation. Wesley often preached two or three times a day. His sermons often caused people to have conversion experiences. Many converts then joined Methodist societies to do good works. One notable reform they influenced was the abolition of the slave trade in the early 1800s. After Wesley's death, Methodism became a separate Protestant group.
Copernicus and Kepler.
In May 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a native of Poland, published his famous book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Copernicus, a mathematician, thought that his heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe offered a more accurate explanation than did the Ptolemaic system. In his system, the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe. The planets revolved around the sun. The moon, however, revolved around Earth. Moreover, according to Copernicus, the apparent movement of the sun around Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth on its axis and its journey around the sun. Johannes Kepler, a German mathematician, took the next step in destroying the Ptolemaic system. Kepler used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion. His observations confirmed that the sun was at the center of the universe and also added new information. In his first law, Kepler showed that the planets' orbits around the sun were not circular, as Copernicus had thought. Rather, the orbits were elliptical (egg shaped), with the sun toward the end of the ellipse instead of at the center. This finding, known as Kepler's First Law, contradicted the circular orbits and crystal-like spheres that were central to the Ptolemaic system.
Laws of Planetary Motion.
In his first law, Kepler showed that the planets' orbits around the sun were not circular, as Copernicus had thought. Rather, the orbits were elliptical (egg shaped), with the sun toward the end of the ellipse instead of at the center. This finding, known as Kepler's First Law, contradicted the circular orbits and crystal-like spheres that were central to the Ptolemaic system.
Orbits not circular.
In his first law, Kepler showed that the planets' orbits around the sun were not circular, as Copernicus had thought. Rather, the orbits were elliptical (eggshaped), with the sun toward the end of the ellipse instead of at the center.
Social contract.
In his major work The Social Contract, published in 1762, Rousseau presented his concept of the social contract. Through a social contract, an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will. Individuals who wish instead to follow their own self-interests must be forced to abide by the general will. "This means nothing less than that [they] will be forced to be free," said Rousseau. Thus, liberty is achieved by being forced to follow what is best for "the general will" because the general will represents what is best for the entire community.
Natural philosophers.
In the Middle Ages, many educated Europeans took great interest in the world around them. However, these "natural philosophers," as medieval scientists were known, did not make observations of the natural world. Instead they relied on a few ancient authorities— especially Aristotle—for their scientific knowledge. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a number of changes occurred that caused the natural philosophers to abandon their old views.
Universal laws of Gravitation.
In the Principia, Newton defined the three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies, as well as objects on Earth. Crucial to his whole argument was the universal law of gravitation. This law explains why the planetary bodies continue their elliptical orbits about the sun. The law states, in mathematical terms, that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity. This one universal law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in the universe.
Critical of human belief that they were masters of nature.
In this work, Cavendish was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature: We have no power at all over natural causes and effects...for man is but a small part, his powers are but particular actions of Nature, and he cannot have a supreme and absolute power.
Role of Government in Economy.
Indeed, Smith gave to government only three basic roles. First, it should protect society from invasion (the function of the army). Second, the government should defend citizens from injustice (the function of the police). And finally, it should keep up certain public works that private individuals alone could not afford—roads and canals, for example—but which are necessary for social interaction and trade.
Kepler.
Johannes Kepler, a German mathematician, took the next step in destroying the Ptolemaic system. Kepler used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion. His observations confirmed that the sun was at the center of the universe and also added new information.
John Locke.
John Locke and Isaac Newton. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, or blank mind. Locke's ideas suggested that people were molded by the experiences that came through their senses from the surrounding world. Enlightenment thinkers began to believe that if environments were changed and people were exposed to the right influences, then they could be changed to create a new, and better, society.
Enlightened Absolutism.
Many historians once assumed that a new type of monarchy, enlightened absolutism, emerged in the later eighteenth century. In this system, rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers. Did Europe's rulers actually follow the advice of the philosophes and become enlightened? To answer this question, we examine three states—Prussia, Austria, and Russia.
Geocentric.
Ptolemy, who lived in the a.d. 100s, was the greatest astronomer of antiquity. Using Ptolemy's ideas, as well as those of Aristotle and of Christianity, philosophers of the Middle Ages constructed a model of the universe known later as the Ptolemaic system. This system is geocentric because it places Earth at the center of the universe.
Margaret Cavendish.
Margaret Cavendish, a philosopher, and Maria Winkelmann, an astronomer, helped advance science through their work. Margaret Cavendish came from an English aristocratic family and was tutored on subjects considered suitable for girls of proper upbringing— music, dancing, reading, and needlework. She was not formally educated in the sciences. However, Cavendish wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy.
Wollstonecraft.
Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer, advanced the strongest statement for the rights of women. Many see her as the founder of the modern European and American movements for women's rights. In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Wollstonecraft identified two problems with the views of many Enlightenment thinkers. She noted that the same people who argued that women must obey men also said that government based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects was wrong. Wollstonecraft pointed out that the power of men over women was equally wrong.
Rotation of earth on axis.
Moreover, according to Copernicus, the apparent movement of the sun around Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth on its axis and its journey around the sun.
New picture of universe.
Newton's ideas created a new picture of the universe. It was now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws. Newton's concept dominated the modern worldview until Albert Einstein's concept of relativity gave a new picture of the universe.
Growth of Reading.
Of great importance to the Enlightenment was the spread of its ideas to the literate elite of European society. The growth of both publishing and the reading public during the eighteenth century was noticeable. Books had previously been aimed at small groups of the educated elite. Now many books were directed at the new reading public of the middle classes, which included women and urban artisans. Especially appealing to these readers were the works of novelists who began to use realistic social themes. The English writer Henry Fielding wrote novels about people without morals who survive by their wits. Fielding's best-known work is The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, which describe the adventures of a young scoundrel. An important aspect of the growth of publishing and reading in the eighteenth century was the development of magazines and newspapers for the general public. The first daily newspaper was printed in London in 1702. Newspapers were relatively cheap and were even provided free in many coffeehouses. Coffeehouses also served as gathering places for the exchange of ideas.
New inventions.
Other developments also encouraged new ways of thinking. Technical problems that required careful observation and accurate measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that ships could hold, served to stimulate scientific activity. Then, too, the invention of new instruments, such as the telescope and microscope, made fresh scientific discoveries possible. Above all, the printing press helped spread new ideas quickly and easily. Mathematics played a key role in the scientific achievements of the time. It was promoted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of the works of ancient mathematicians. Moreover, mathematics was seen as the key to navigation, military science, and geography.
Ptolemaic System.
Ptolemy, who lived in the a.d. 100s, was the greatest astronomer of antiquity. Using Ptolemy's ideas, as well as those of Aristotle and of Christianity, philosophers of the Middle Ages constructed a model of the universe known later as the Ptolemaic system. This system is geocentric because it places Earth at the center of the universe. In the Ptolemaic system, the universe is seen as a series of concentric spheres—one inside the other. Earth is fixed, or motionless, at the center. The heavenly bodies—pure orbs of light—are embedded in the crystal-like, transparent spheres that rotate about Earth. The moon is embedded in the first sphere, Mercury in the second, Venus in the third, and the sun in the fourth. The rotation of the spheres makes these heavenly bodies rotate about Earth and move in relation to one another.
Disagreement with Aristotle and classics.
Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin. These language skills gave them access to newly discovered works by Archimedes and Plato. These writings made it obvious that some ancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle and other accepted authorities of the Middle Ages.
Natural law.
The Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the Scientific Revolution. One of the favorite words of these intellectuals was reason. By this, they meant the application of the scientific method to an understanding of all life. They hoped that by using the scientific method, they could make progress toward a better society than the one they had inherited. Reason, natural law, hope, progress—these were common words to the thinkers of the Enlightenment. The ideas of the Enlightenment would become a force for reform and eventually revolution.
Reason.
The Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the Scientific Revolution. One of the favorite words of these intellectuals was reason. By this, they meant the application of the scientific method to an understanding of all life. They hoped that by using the scientific method, they could make progress toward a better society than the one they had inherited. Reason, natural law, hope, progress—these were common words to the thinkers of the Enlightenment. The ideas of the Enlightenment would become a force for reform and eventually revolution.
Economics.
The Physiocrats and Scottish philosopher Adam Smith have been viewed as the founders of the modern social science of economics.
Laissez-faire.
The Physiocrats, a French group, were interested in identifying the natural economic laws that governed human society. They maintained that if individuals were free to pursue their own economic self-interest, all society would benefit. The state, then, should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by imposing regulations on the economy. Instead, the state should leave the economy alone. This doctrine became known by its French name, laissez-faire, meaning "to let (people) do (what they want)."
Silesia.
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) was fought in three areas of the world. In Europe, Prussia seized Silesia while France occupied some Austrian territory.
Wealth of Nations.
The best statement of laissez-faire was made in 1776 by Adam Smith in his famous work, The Wealth of Nations.
Adam Smith.
The best statement of laissez-faire was made in 1776 by Adam Smith in his famous work, The Wealth of Nations. Like the Physiocrats, Smith believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters. Indeed, Smith gave to government only three basic roles. First, it should protect society from invasion (the function of the army). Second, the government should defend citizens from injustice (the function of the police). And finally, it should keep up certain public works that private individuals alone could not afford—roads and canals, for example—but which are necessary for social interaction and trade.
Separation of Powers.
The government functioned through a separation of powers. In this separation, the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of the government limit and control each other in a system of checks and balances. By preventing any one person or group from gaining too much power, this system provides the greatest freedom and security for the state.
Isaac Newton.
The ideas of Isaac Newton also influenced eighteenth-century intellectuals. Newton believed that the physical world and everything in it was like a giant "world machine," operating according to natural laws that could be uncovered through systematic investigation. The Enlightenment thinkers reasoned that if Newton was able to discover the natural laws that governed the physical world, then by applying his scientific methods, they would be able to discover the natural laws that governed human society. If all institutions would then follow these natural laws, the result would be an ideal society.
Philosophe.
The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by the French word philosophe, meaning "philosopher." Not all philosophers were French, however, and few were philosophers in the strict sense of the term. They were writers, professors, journalists, economists, and above all, social reformers. They came chiefly from the nobility and the middle class.
Astronomer.
The most famous female astronomer in Germany was Maria Winkelmann. She received training in astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. When she married Gottfried Kirch, Prussia's foremost astronomer, she became his assistant and began to practice astronomy. Winkelmann made some original contributions to astronomy, including the discovery of a comet. When her husband died, Winkelmann applied for a position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman—with no university degree—she was denied the post. Members of the Berlin Academy feared that they would set a bad example by hiring a woman.
Maria Winkelmann.
The most famous female astronomer in Germany was Maria Winkelmann. She received training in astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. When she married Gottfried Kirch, Prussia's foremost astronomer, she became his assistant and began to practice astronomy. Winkelmann made some original contributions to astronomy, including the discovery of a comet. When her husband died, Winkelmann applied for a position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman—with no university degree—she was denied the post. Members of the Berlin Academy feared that they would set a bad example by hiring a woman.
JJ Rousseau.
The most famous philosophe of the later Enlightenment was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau believed that emotions, as well as reason, were important to human development. He sought a balance between heart and mind, between emotions and reason.
Arts.
The palace of Louis XIV at Versailles, in France, had made an enormous impact on Europe as other European rulers also built grand residences. These palaces were modeled more on the Italian baroque style of the 1500s and 1600s than on the late seventeenth-century French classical style of Versailles. One of the greatest architects of the eighteenth century was Balthasar Neumann. Neumann's two masterpieces are the Church of the Fourteen Saints in southern Germany and the Residence, the palace of the prince bishop of Würzburg. In these buildings, secular and spiritual become one, as lavish and fanciful ornament, light, bright colors, and elaborate detail greet the visitor. The baroque and neoclassical styles that had dominated seventeenth-century art continued into the eighteenth century. By the 1730s, however, a new artistic style, known as rococo, had spread all over Europe. Unlike the baroque style, which stressed grandeur and power, rococo emphasized grace, charm, and gentle action. Rococo made use of delicate designs colored in gold with graceful curves. The rococo style was highly secular. Its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. Rococo's appeal is evident in the work of Antoine Watteau. In his paintings, gentlemen and ladies in elegant dress reveal a world of upper-class pleasure and joy. Underneath that exterior, however, is an element of sadness. The artist suggests such sadness in his paintings by depicting the fragility and passing nature of pleasure, love, and life. One of his masterpieces, the Embarkation for Cythera, shows French rococo at its peak.
The Seven Years War
The stage was set for the Seven Years' War when, in 1740, a major war broke out over the succession to the Austrian throne. When the Austrian emperor Charles VI died without a male heir, his daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeded him. King Frederick II of Prussia took advantage of the confusion surrounding the succession of a woman to the throne by invading Austrian Silesia, a piece of land that he hoped to add to Prussia. By this action, Frederick refused to recognize the legitimacy of the empress of Austria. France then entered the war against Austria, its traditional enemy. In turn, Maria Theresa allied with Great Britain. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) was fought in three areas of the world. In Europe, Prussia seized Silesia while France occupied some Austrian territory. In Asia, France took Madras (today called Chennai) in India from the British. In North America, the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance of the St. Lawrence River. By 1748, all parties were exhausted and agreed to the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle. The treaty guaranteed the return of all occupied territories but Silesia to their original owners. Prussia's refusal to return Silesia meant yet another war, for Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss. She rebuilt her army while working diplomatically to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France. In 1756 Maria Theresa achieved what was soon labeled a diplomatic revolution.
Discourse on Method.
The starting point for Descartes's new system was doubt. In his most famous work, Discourse on Method, written in 1637, Descartes decided to set aside all that he had learned and to begin again. One fact seemed to him to be beyond doubt—his own existence.
Galen proven wrong.
The teachings of Galen, a Greek physician in the a.d. 100s, dominated medicine in the Late Middle Ages. Relying on animal, rather than human, dissection to picture human anatomy, Galen was wrong in many instances. A revolution in medicine began in the sixteenth century. During this time Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey added to the understanding of human anatomy. By dissecting human bodies at the University of Padua, Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body. William Harvey showed that the heart—not the liver, as Galen had thought—was the beginning point for the circulation of blood. He also proved that the same blood flows through the veins and arteries and makes a complete circuit through the body. The French scientist Blaise Pascal experimented with how liquids behaved under pressure. This led him to the principle known as Pascal's Law. He applied this principle to the development of tools such as the syringe and the hydraulic press. Robert Boyle was one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments in chemistry. His work on the properties of gases led to Boyle's Law, which states that the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. In the eighteenth century, Antoine Lavoisier invented a system for naming chemical elements still used today. Many people consider him the founder of modern chemistry.
Prime mover.
The tenth sphere in the Ptolemaic system is the "prime mover." This sphere moves itself and gives motion to the other spheres. Beyond the tenth sphere is Heaven, where God resides. God was at one end of the universe, then, and humans were at the center.
Know the Fredericks.
Two able Prussian kings, Frederick William I and Frederick II, made Prussia a major European power in the eighteenth century. Frederick William I maintained a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers. They observed the supreme values of obedience, honor, and, above all, service to the king. As Frederick William asserted: "One must serve the king with life and limb, ... and surrender everything except salvation. The latter is reserved for God. But everything else must be mine." Frederick William's other major concern was the army. By the end of his reign in 1740, he had doubled the army's size. Although Prussia was a small state, it had the fourth-largest army after France, Russia, and Austria. The Prussian army, because of its size and its good reputation, was the most important institution in the state. Members of the nobility, who owned large landed estates with many serfs, were the officers in the Prussian army. These officers, too, had a strong sense of service to the king or state. As Prussian nobles, they believed in duty, obedience, and sacrifice. Frederick II, or Frederick the Great, who ruled from 1740 to 1786, was one of the best educated monarchs of the time. He was well versed in Enlightenment ideas and was also a dedicated ruler. He, too, enlarged the Prussian army by actively recruiting the nobility into civil service. Frederick kept a strict watch over the bureaucracy.
Voltaire teachings.
Voltaire was well known for his criticism of Christianity. He often challenged the actions of the Church, one of the most powerful institutions of the time. He had a strong belief in religious toleration, fighting against religious intolerance in France. Voltaire championed deism, an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law. Deism built on the idea of the Newtonian world machine. In the Deists' view, a mechanic (God) had created the universe. To Voltaire and most other philosophes, the universe was like a clock. God, the clockmaker, had created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws.
Hapsburgs vs Hohenzollern.
Wanted control over the power vacuum system.
Harvey-circulation of blood.
William Harvey showed that the heart—not the liver, as Galen had thought—was the beginning point for the circulation of blood. He also proved that the same blood flows through the veins and arteries and makes a complete circuit through the body.
Denied entry to Berlin Academy.
Winkelmann applied for a position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman—with no university degree—she was denied the post. Members of the Berlin Academy feared that they would set a bad example by hiring a woman.
