Chapter 22 Id's

zemstvos

A system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, was instituted in 1864 that provided a moderate degree of self-gov. Reps oto the zemstvos were to be elected from the noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants, but the property-based system of voting gave a distinct advatage to the nobles. Zemstvos were given a limited power to provide public services, such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance. They could levy taxes to pay for these services, but their efforts were frequently disrupted by bureaucrats, who feared any hint of self-gov. The hope of liberal nobles and other social reformers that the zemstvos would be expanded into a national parliament remained unfulfilled. The legal reforms of 1864, which made a regular system of local and provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of equality before the law, proved successful, however. Importance: A system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, was put into place by Alexander II as another reform. The zemstvos was a good idea, but didn't go far in the long run.

Napoleon III (1852-1870)

After 1850, a new generation of conservative leaders came to power in Europe, one of which was Napoleon III of France. He showed his coworkers how authoritarian governments could use liberal and nationalist forces to further strengthen their power, which others caught on to quickly. When the National Assembly rejected his wish to revise the constitution and be allowed to stand for reelection, Louis used military forces to take over the government in 1851, after waiting three years to gain the French people's support. After he restored universal male suffrage, Louis Napoleon inquired the French people to restructure the gov by electing him pres for 10 years. 7.5 million yes votes won over the meager 640,000 no votes, and one year later, in 1852, he returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. 97% responded in favor of this, and on Dec 2, 1852, he assumed the title of Napoleon III. This was the beginning of the 2nd Empire. His gov was obviously authoritarian in a Bonapartist sense, and he controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service, and only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The 1st 5 yrs of his reign were a success as he gained benefits of international economic prosperity as well as some of his own economic policies. He believed in using the resources of gov to instigate the national economy and took several steps to urge industrial growth. Gov subsidies were used to foster the construction of infrastructure: the French railway lines weere completed during his reign, and industrial expansion was obvious in the tripling of iron production. He was concerned, however, in reducing tensions and improving the social welfare of the nation, and so he provided hospitals and free medicine for the workers and advocated better housing for the working class. Betwixt this economic expansion, he undertook a vast reconstruction of Paris. He was directed by Baron Haussman. In the 1860's, opposition began to grow on some of the emperor's policies, and Napoleon III libebralized his regime. He reached out to the working class by legalizing trade unions and granting them the right to strike. He also began to liberalize the political process. Eventually, foreign policy failures led to growing cricism, and war with Purissa in 1870 ultimately led to be the death blow for Napoleon III's regime. Importance: Napoleon III created an authoritarian monarchy in France, and liberalized the government, but his regime collapsed due to growing opposition and a disastrous military defeat in Prussia.

Reform Act of 1867

After the Whig Palmerston, the prime minister for around ten years, died in 1865, the movement for the extension of the franchise only grew. The Whigs (now callled the Liberals) were responsible for the Reform Act of 1832 and discussed passing more reform legislation, but it was the Tories who carried it through. The Tory leader in Parliament, Benjamin Disraeli, was apparently motivated by the want to achieve victory over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party. The Reform Act of 1867 was an important step toward the democratization of Britain. By decreasing the monetary requirements for voting (taxes paid/income earned), it by and large enfranchised many male urban workers. The number of voters went up from about 1 million to slightly over 2 million. Although Disraeli thought this would benefit the Conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868. Importance: The Reform Act of 1867 was a prominent step toward the democratization of Britain.

Marx's Das Kapital

After the failure of the rev.s of 1848, Marx went to London, where he spent the remainder of his living days. He continued his writing on political ecnomy, especially his famous work, Das Kapital (Capital), only one volume of which he completed. After his death, the remaining volumes were edited by Engels. One of the major reasons why Das Kapital wasn't finished was Marx's preoccupation with organizing the working-class movement. Importance: Marx's Das Kapital was a prominent political economic book written by Marx.

Piedmont and the House of Savoy

After the failure of the revolution of 1848-1849, an increasing amount of advocates for Italian unification focused on the northern Italian state of Piedmont as their best hope to achieve this goal. The house of Savoy ruled the kingdom of Piedmont, which also included the island of Sardinia. Although defeated by the Austrians, who were the dominant power on the Italian peninsula in 1850, in 1848-1849, Piedmont under King Charles Alber had made a valiant effort; it seemed reasonable that Piedmont would now assume the leading role in the cause of national unity. The little state seemed unlikely to supply the needed leadership, however until the new king, Victor Emmanuel II, named Count Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister in 1852. Importance: Piedmont, controlled by the House of Savoy, was the leading role in national unity of the Italian states.

Alexander II (1855-1881) and the serfs

Alexander II came into power in the middle of the Crimean War turned his motvies into a serious overhaul of the Russian system, as the defeat of them in the Crimean War showed the blantant deficiencies behind the facade of absolute power. Russia's loss also made it lcear even to staunch conservatives that Russia was falling hopelessly behind the Western European powers. Serfdom was the most burdensome problem in Russia during the time of the tsars. The ongoing subjugation of countless peasants to the land and their landlords was a corrupt and failing system. Russian landowners were reduced to antiquated methods of production based on serf labr, and were economically pressed and unable to compete w/ foreign ag. The serfs, who formed the backbone of the Russian infantry (foot soldiers), were uneducated and therefore were unable to deal with the more complex machines and weapons of war. Peasant dissatisfication still led to local peasant revolts that disrupted the countryside, as well. Alexander II seemed to recognize the inevitable: "The existing order of serdom cannot remain unchanged." On March 3, 1861, Alexander issued his emancipation edict. Peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts, but the benefits were limited. The gov provided land for the peasants by purchasing it from landowners, but usually the landowners chose to keep the best lands. The Russian peasants soon found that they didn't have enough good land to support themsleves, which worsened as the peasnat population increased rapidly in the 2nd half of the 19th cent. The peasants were also not completely free. The state compensated the landowners for the land given to the peasants, but the peasants were expected to repay the state in long-term installments. To ensure these payments were paid, peasants were under the authority of their mir, or village commune, which collectively was responsible for the land payments to the gov. In a very real sense, then, the villlage commune, not the indvidual peasants, owned the land the peasants were purchasing, and bc of this, the village communes were reluctant to allow peasants to leave their land. Importance: Tsar Alexander II isued his emancipation, which led not to a free, landowning peasantry like in Western Europe, but to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry that largely followed the old ways of farming.

bourgeoisie vs. proletariat

Although bourgeois society had emerged victorious out of the ruins of feudalism, Marx and Engels insisted that it had not triumphed completely. Once again the members of the bourgeoisie were antagonists in an emerging class struggle, but this time they faced the proletariat, or the industrial working class. This struggle would be fierce, but eventually, so Marx and Engels predicted, the workers would overthrow their bourgeois masters. After this victory, the proletariat would form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production. Then a classless society would emerge, and the state-itself an instrument of the bourgeoisie-would wither away since it no longer represented the interests of a particular class. Class struggles would then be over. Marx believed that the emergences of a classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all. Importance: The fierce battle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat ultimately ended with the proletariat crowned as victorious, and would lead to a classless society.

Baron Haussmann and Paris

Baron Haussman was the director of Napoleon III's reconstruction of Paris. He replaced the medieval Paris of narrow streets and old city walls by a modern Paris of broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public water supply, and gaslight. Importance: Napoleon III's new Paris, with Haussmann as the director, served a military as well as an aesthetic purpose: broad streets made it more difficult for would-be insurrectionists to throw up barricades and easier for troops to move rapidly thru the city to put down revolts.

Ottoman Empire

Before the Crimean War, there needed to be an answer to the Eastern Question: Who would be the chief beneficiaries of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire? In the 1600's, the Ottoman Empire controlled southeastern Europe, but in 1699 it had lost Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to the expanding Austrian Empire. The Russian Empire to its north also encroached on the Ottoman Empire by taking control of the Crimea in 1783 and Bessarabia in 1812. By the turn of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had entered a fresh period of decline. A nationalist revolt had gained indepenced for Greece in 1830; Serbia claimed autonomy in 1827, which was recognized by the Ottoman Empire in 1830; The Russians had obtained a protectorate over the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1829. As Ottoman autority over the outlying territories in soutereastern Europe waned, European govs started to take an active interest in the empire's apparent demise. Russia's close location to the Ottoman Empire and the religious bonds betwixt the Russians and the Greek Orthodox Christians in Ottoman-controlled southeastern Europe gave it speical opportunities to increase its amount of influence. Other European powers not only feared Russian ambitions but also had objectives of their own in the area. Austria wanted more land in the Balkans, a desire that inevitably meant conflict w/ Russia, and France and Britain were interested in commerical opportunities and naval bases in the eastern Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire's fortunes were declining, beginning in 1699, with major losses to the Austrian Empire. The slide accelerated in the 19th cent. w/ nationalist revolts in European provinces and defeat in the Crimean War. Importance: The Ottoman Empire's participation in the Crimean War lead to downfall, and its participation in World War I would ultimately lead to its complete destruction.

Second German Empire

Before the Franco-Austrian War was over, the southern German states had agreed to enter the North German Confederation. On Jan 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, William I, with Bismarck standing at the foot of the throne was proclaimed kaiser or emperor of the Second German Empire (the first was the medieval Holy Roman Empire). German unity was finally achieved by the Prussian monarch and the Prussian army. In a real sense, Germany had been merged into Prussia, not vice versa and German liberals also rejoiced. These liberals had dreamed of unity and freedom, but the actually achievment now seemed much more important. The Prussian leadership of German unification meant the triumph of authoritarian, militaristic values over liberal, constitutional sentiments in the development of the new German state. W/ its industrial resources and miltary might, the new state had become the strongest power on the Continent. Importance: The unity of Germany, known as the Second German Empire, brough a new European balance of power.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Bismarck had no problem gaining Russia's agreement to reman neutral in the event of an Austro-Prussian war bc Prussia had been the only great power to support Russia's repression of a Polish revolt in 1863. Bismarck made an alliance w/ the new Italian state and promised it Venetia in the event of Austrian defeat. With the Austrians isolated, Bismarck used the joint occupation of Schleswig-Holstein to goad the Austrians into a war on June 14, 1866. Many expected a swift Austrian victory, but they overlooked the effectiveneess of the Prussian military reforms of the 1860s. The Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a much faster rate of fire than the Austrian muzzleloader, and a superior network of railroads enabled the Prussians to mass troops quickly. The Austrian army was defeated on July 3 at Koniggratz. Looking ahead, Bismarck refused to create a hostile enemy by burdening Austria w/ a harsh peace as the Prussian king wanted. Autria didn't lose any terrioty except Venetia to Italy but was excluded from German affairs. Importance: The Austro-Prussian War was a turning point in Prussian domestic affairs.

"iron and blood" and Realpolitik

Bismarck's famous "iron and blood" speech to a committee of the Prussian Reichstag brought about the idea that weapons and sacrifice (war) were more impacting on countries, rather than speeches and majorities. During the mid-19th century, a new generation of conservative leaders emerged who were proud of being practitioners of Realpolitik, "the politics of reality." Bismarck of Prussia has often been portrayed as the ultimate realist, the foremost 19th century ypractitioner of Realpolitik, and Louis Napoleon of France was also prominent. Realpolitik means accomplishing goals through practical means. Importance: Realpolitik was a movement that meant the "politics of reality," of which the belief of "iron and blood" was a prominent part.

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910)

Blackwell was admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake, but Blackwell's perseverance and intelligence won her the respect of her fellow male students. She received her M.D. degree in 1849 and eventually established a clinic in New York City. Importance: Blackwell achieved the first major breakthrough for women in medicine.

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

By 1866, Bismarck and William I had achieved a major goal. Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, and Austria had been excluded from any significant role in German affairs. Nevertheless, unsettled business led to new complications on the world level and further change. Bismarck realized that France wouldn't be content w/ a strong German state to its east bc of the potentional threat of security. Simaltenuosuly, after a series of setbacks, Napoleon III needed a diplomatic triumph to offset his serious domestic problems. The French weren't happy w/ the turn of events in Germany and looked for opportunities to humilate the Prussians. After a successful revolution had deposed Queen Isabella II, the throne of Spain was offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a distant relatvie of the Hohenzollern king of Prussia. Bismarck welcomed this possiblity for the same reason that the French objected to it. If Leopold were placed on the throne of Spain, France would be basically encircled by members of the Hohenzollern dynasty. French objections caused King William I to force his relative to withraw his candidaacy, which Bismarck was disappointed with. However, at this time, the French overreached. Not content w/ their diplomatic victgory, they pushed William I to make a formal apology to France and promise never to allow Leopold to be a candidate again. When Bismarck received a telegarm from the king informing him of the French request, Bismarck edited to make it appear even more insulting to the French, knowing that the French would be angry and declare war. The French reacted as Bismarck expected and declared war on Prussia on July 15, 1870. The French proved no match for the better-led and better-organized Prussian froces. The southern Germans tates honored their military alliances w/ Prussia andjoined the war effort against the French. The Prussian armies advanced into France, and fought at the battle of Sadowa. After 4 months of resistance, Paris capitulated on January 28, 1871, and an officail peace treaty was signed in May. France was forced to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (~$1 billion) and give up Alsace and Loraine to the new German state, a loss that agnred the French and left them burning for revenge. Importance: The Franco-Austrian War ended in a unified Germany, which led to a whole new European balance of power.

Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

By the 1850's, the question of slavery caused the Whig Party to become defunct and the Democrats to split along North-South lines. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska territories to be determined by popular sovereignty, which created a lot of opposition in the North and led to the creation of a new sectional party. The Republicans were united by anti-slavery principles and were especially driven by the fear that the "slave power" of the South would attempt to spread the slave system thru out the country. Importance: The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 led to the creation of a new sectional party.

Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1821-1880)

Flaubert perfected the Realist novel and was the leading novelist of the 1850s and 1860s. His Madame Bovary (1857) was a straightforward description of barren and sordid small-town life in France. Emma Bovary is a woman of some vitality, and is trapped in a marriage to a drab provincial doctor. Impelled by the images of romantic love she has read about in novels, she seeks the same thing for herself in adulterous affairs. Unfulfilled, she is ultimately driven to suicide, unrepentant to the end for her lifestyle. Importance: Flaubert's contempt for bourgeois society was evident in his portrayal of middle-class hypocrisy and smugness in his Madame Bovary.

Dominion of Canada

By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Canada-or New France, as it was called-was in the hands of the British. By 1800, a majority of the Canadians favored autonomy, although the colonists disagreed on the form this would take. Upper Canada (now Ontario) was mostly Englihs-speaking, whereas Lower Canada (now Quebec) was mostly comprised of French Canadians. There was a large increase in immigration to Canda from Great Britain (almost 1 million between 1815 and 1850) also fueld the desire for self gov. In 1837, a # of Canadian groups rose in rebelleion against British authority. Rebels in Lower Canada wanted to be separate from Britain, create a republic, and achieve universal male suffrage, and freedom of the press. The rebellions were crushed by the following year, but the British gov now began to seek ways to satisfy some of the Canadian demands. The American Civil War proved to be a turning point. Fearful of American designs on Canada during the war and eager to reduce the costs of maintaining the colonies, British gov gave to Canadian demands. In 1867, Parli established the Canadian nation-the Dominion of Canda-w/ its own constitution. Canda now possessed a parli system and ruled istelf, but foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British gov. Importance: The Dominion of Canada was successful in separating itself from Britain, acquired its own constitution, parliamentary system and now ruled itself.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and "positive knowledge"

Comte's work exemplifies the attempt to apply the methods of science systematically to the study of scoeity. His System of Positive Philosophy was published btw 1837 and 1842 but had its real impact after 1850. Comte created a system of "positive knowledge," which was based on a hierarchy of all the sciences. Math was the building block on which the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences were built. At the top was sociology, the science of human society, which for Comte incorporated economics, anthropology, history, and social psychology. He viewed sociology's task as a challenging one. The discovery of the general laws of society would have to be based on the collection and analysis of data on humans and their social environment. Importance: Although his schemes were often complex and dense, Comte played an important role in the growing popularity of science and materialism in the mid-19th century.

Count Camillo di Cavour (1849-1878)

Count Camillo di Cavour was Victor Emmanuel II's prime minister, named so in 1852. He was a liberal-minded, moderate nobleman who favored constitutional government. After becoming prime minister, he pursued a policy of economic expansion, encouraging the further building of infrastructure and fostering business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating investment in new industries. The growth in the Piedmontese economy and the subsequent increase in government revenues enabled Cavour to pour money into equipping a large army. He had no illusions about Piedmont's miliatry strength, was aware he couldn't directly challenge Austria, and realized he needed the French. In 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III came to an agreement, in which the emperor agreed to ally w/ Piedmont in driving the Austrians out of Italy. Once they were out, Italy would be reorganized. Piedmont would be extended into the kingdom of Upper Italy by addding Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the Papal States to its territory. In compensation for its efforts, France would recieve the Piedmontese provinces of Nice and Savoy. A kingdom of Central Italy would be created for Napoleon III's cousin, Prince Napoleon, who would be married to the younger daughter of King Victor Emmanuel. This agreement btw Nap and Cavour seemed to assure the French ruler of the opportunity to control Italy. Cavour was confident that the plan would work, and therefore provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont in April 1859. Importance: Cavour, Emmanuel II's prime minister, urged on the battles of Magenta and Solferino.

Count Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

Count Otto von Bismarck was appointed by William I as the new prime minister. He was regarded even by the king as too conservative. He embarked on a career in the Prussian civil service, but soon tired of bureaucratic, adminstrative routine and retired to manage his country estates. In 1847, Bismarck was desirous of more excitemnet and power than he could find in his home country of Prussia, and reentered public life. In 1851, he started to build a base of diplomatic experience as the Prussian delegate to the parliament of the Germanic Confederation. Combining this w/ his experience as Prussian ambassador to Russia and later to France gave him opportunites to acquire a wide knowledge of European affairs and to learn how to assess the character of rulers. In 1862, Bismarck resubmitted the army appropriations bill to parliament along w/ a passionate appeal to his liberal opponents. His opponents weren't impressed and rejected the bill once again. Bismarck went ahead, collected the taxes, and reorganized the army anyway, blaming the liberals for causing the breakdown of constitutional government. From 1862-1866, Bismarck governed Prussia by largely ignoring parliament. Unwilling to revolt, parliament did nothing. In the meantime, opposition to his domestic policy determined Bismarck on an active foreign policy, which led to his first war in 1864. Bismarck played a major role in leading Prussia to achieve the unification of the German states into a new German Empire, proclaimed on January 18, 1871, and as a result of this then became chancellor of the new Germany. Bismarck showed that liberalism and nationalism, the 2 major forces of change in the early 19th century, could be separated. Importance: Bismarck played a major role in leading Prussia to achieve the unification of the German states into a new German Empire, and came to determine the course of modern German history. Until 1890, he dominated both German and European politics.

Gustave Courbet's The Stonebreakers (1819-1877)

Courbet's was the most famous artist of the Realist schools. The word Realism was actually coined first in 1850 to describe one of his paintings. Courbet reveled in a realistic portrayal of everyday life. The Stonebreakers is one of his most famous pieces, painted in 1849, which shows two road workers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. This representation of human misery was a scandal to those who objected to his "cult of ugliness." To Courbet, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly to interest him. Importance: Courbet's The Stonebreakers sought to portray things as they really appear, and exemplifies the art of Realism.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Darwin, similar to other 19th century scientists, was a scientific amateur. He was able to to survey and study the landmasses of S. America and the S. Pacific when he was offered a job to study the structure of various forms of plant and animal life on the H.M.S. Beagle. He observed animals on islands basically untouched by external influence and compared them with animals on the mainland. Because of this, he came to discard the notion of a special creation and to believe that animals evovled over time and in response to their environment. When he returned to Britain, he eventually formulated an explanation for evolution in the principle of natural selection, a theory that he presented in 1859 in his book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. He wasn't concerned w/ humans themsleves and only later applied his theory of natural selection to humans. He finally determined that humans were not an exception to the rule governing other species, in The Descent of Man, which also argued for the animal origins of human beings. Darwin's ideas were highly controversial at first, as some people worried his theory made humans ordinary products of nature, rather than unique, special beings. Others, still, were moved by the implications of life as a struggle for survival, of "nature red in tooth and claw." For those who believed in a rational order in the world, Darwin's theory seemed to eliminate purpose and design from the universe. Gradually, however, Darwin's theory was accepted by scientists and other intellectuals. In the process of accepting his ideas, some even tried to apply them to society, yet another ex. of science's increasing prestige. Importance: Darwin's theories provoked a lot of criticism, but eventually Darwin's theories became accepted and are still believed in today.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

Dickens was the greatest of the Victorian novelists, whose realisitc novels focused on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early Industrial Age became extraordinarily successful. His descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic. He realistically portrayed the material, social, and psychological milieu of his time, though an element of Romanticism still pervaded his novels. Importance: Dickens was the greatest of the Victorian novelists.

Dardanelles and Sevastopol

Early on in the Crimean War, the British were concerned about an upset in the bop, which lead them, along with France, to declare war on Russia on March 28, 1853. The British in particular feared that an aggressive Russia would try to profit from the obvious weakness of the Ottoman gov by overtaking Ottoman territory or the long-coveted Dardanelles. Later on, Britain and France decided to attack Russia's Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. After a long siege and at a terrible cost in manpower for both sides, the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in September 1855, six mos after the death of Tsar Nicholas I. Importance: Dardanelles was the place that Britain and France went after directly following them declaring war on Russia in 1853. Later on, Britain and France decided to attack Russia's Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea, and after a long siege and at a terrible cost in manpower for both sides, the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in 1855.

North German Confederation

Following the Austro-Prussian War, the German states north of the Main River were organized into the North German Confederation, controlled by Prussia. With Bismarck's victory over Austria and the creation of the Nortth German Conderation, he proved Napoleon III's dictum that nationalism and authoritarian gov could be combined. The North German Confederation got a new constitution when Bismarck showed flexibility. Each German state kept its own local gov, but the king of Prussia was head of the confederation, and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible directly to the king. Both the army and foreign policy remained in the hands of the king and his chancellor. Parliament was placed into a bicameral condition: the Bundesrat, or federal council, composed of delegates nominated by the states, and a lower house, the Reichstag, elected by universal male suffrage. Like Napoleon, Bismarck believed that the peasants and artisans who made up most of the population were conservative at heart and could be used to overcome the advantages of the liberals. Importance: The creation of the North German Confederation led to Bismarck proving Napoleon III's dictum that nationalism and authoritarian gov could be combined.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) and the Red Shirts

Garibaldi was a new leader of Italian unification in southern Italy, at the same time as the battles of Magenta and Solferino. He was an Italian patriot who supported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy, raised an army of a 1,000 Red Shirts (called so bc his volunteers wore red shirts), and on May 11, 1860, landed in Sicily, where a revolt had broken out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies. His forces were outnumbered by a lot, but his daring tactics led him into victory. By the end of July 1860, most of Sicily had been pacified under Garibaldi's control. In August, Garibaldi and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula. At this point, Cavour reentered the scene, whom was aware that Garibaldi planned to march on Rome, and feared that such a move would bring war w/ France as the defender of papal interests. Garibaldi and his men favored a democratic republicanism, but Cavour did not and acted quickly to preempt Garibaldi. The Piedmontese army invaded the Papal States and, bypassing Rome, moved into the kingdom of Napes. Garibaldi was quite the patriot, and chose to yield to Cavour's fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to his farm. Plebiscites in the Papal States and the Two Sicilies ended up giving overwhelming support for union w/ Piedmont. On March 17, 1861, the new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized gov subordinated to the control of Piedmont and King Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy. Worn out by his efforts, Cavour died three months later. Importance: Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist and patriot, whose dream was a united Italian state. His and his men, called the Red Shirts, actions' ultimately lead to his dream coming true by 1870.

Hegel's dialectic

Hegel was a German idealistic philosopher, whom Marx took the idea of dialectic from. Dialectic is the belief that eveything evolves, and all change in history is the result of conflicts btw antagonistic elemtns. Marx was praticularly impressed by Hegel, but disagreed w/ Hegel's belief that history is determined by ideas manifesting themselves in historical forces. Instead, Marx said the course of history is determined by material forces. Importance: Hegel's dialectic was a prominent part that Marx incorporated into his beliefs.

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)

In chemistry, in the 1860s, the Russian Dmitri Mendeleyev classified all the material elements then known on the bassis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law. Importance: Mendeleyev classified all the material elements then known on the bassis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law.

battles of Magenta and Solferino

In the intial stages of fighting, it was the French who were largely responsible for defeating the Austrians in two major battles at Magenta and Solferino. The French were also the ones who made peace with Austria on July 11, 1859, w/o informing their Italian ally. Napoleon withdrew hastily bc he realized that despite 2 losses, the Austrian army had not yet been defeated, and that the struggle might be longer and more costly than he thought. The Prussians were also mobilizing in support of Austria, and Napoleon III had no desire tot ake on 2 enemies at once. As an outcome of Napoleon's peace treaty with Austria, Piedmont received only Lombardy; Venetia remained under Austrain control. Cavour was furious at the French, but events in northern Italy soon turned in his favor. Soon after the war w/ Austria had begun, some northern Italian states had been taken over by nationalists. In plebiscites held in 1860, these states agreed to join Piedmont. Napoloen agreed to the annexations in return for Nice and Savoy. Importance: The battles of Magenta and Solferino were symbols of obvious French responsiblity in the early stages of fighting.

Joseph Lister (1872-1912)

Lister developed the antiseptic princple, and was one of the first to deal with this problem. Following the work of Pasteur, Lister thought that bacteria may enter a wound and cause infection. He used carbolic acid, a newly discovered disinfectant, which proved to be very effective in eliminating infections during surgery. Importance: Lister's discoveries dramatically transformed surgery wards as patients no longer succumbed regularly to what was called "hospital gangrene."

Franz Liszt (1811-1886)

Liszt was a composer who exemplifies the victories of the New German School. As a child prodigy, he established himself as an outstanding concert artist by the age of 12. Liszt's performances and his dazzling personality made him the most highly esteemed virtuoso of his age. He is known as the greatest pianist of all time and has been credited w/ the introduction of of the concept of the modern piano recital. His compositions consist manily of piano pieces, although he composed in other genres as well, including sacred music. He invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works, which did not exactly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea. Importance: Under the guideance of Liszt and the New German School, Romantic music reached its peak.

First International

Marx saw his role in a certain light and participated enthusiastically in the activites of the International Working Men's Association. Formed in 1864 by British and French trade unionists, this "First International" served as an umbrella organization for working-class interests. Marx was the dominant personality on the organization's Gneral Council and devoted much time to its activities. Internal dissension within the ranks soon damaged the organization, and it failed in1872. Although it would be revived in 1889, the fate of socialism by that time was in the hands of national socialist parties. Importance: The "First International" was another name for the International Working Men's Association.

Michael Faraday (1791-1867)

Michael Faraday was an Englishman who worked in the field of electricity. He discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and made a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s. Importance: Faraday made a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity.

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

More than 250,000 soldiers died in the Crimean War, with 60% of the deaths coming from disease, especially cholera. Even more would have died on the British side if it had not been for the efforts of Florence Nightingale. She was allowed to take a group of nursees to the Crimean warfront, after a denunciation was released about the quality of medicl care afforded to wounded British soldiers. Importance: Nightingale's insistence on strict sanitary conditions saved many lives and helped make nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women.

Mexico and Emperor Maximilian

Napoleon was less successful at cooperating with foreign policy, especially his imperialisgtic adventure in Mexico. He wanted to dominate Mexican markets with French goods, and so he sent French troops to Mexico in 1861 to join British and Spanish forces in protecting their interests betwixt the upheaval caused by an issue btw liberal and conservative Mexican factions. Despite Britain and Spain withdrawing their troops after order was restored, French forces remained, and in 1861, Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria, his handpicked choice, as the new emperor of Mexico. When the French troosp were needed in Europe, Maximilian became an emperor w/o an army, and in May of 1867, he surrendered to liberal Mexican forces, and was executed in June. His execution was a blow to the prestige of the French emperor. Importance: Mexico and Emperor Maximilan are symbols of Napoleon's unsuccessfulness at dealing with foreign policy.

Crimean War (1854-1856)

Napoleon's participation in the Crimean War was very rewarding. As heir to the Napoleonic empire, Napoleon III was motivated by the desire to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlemetns of 1814-1815 and to make France the cheif arbiter of Europe. In the decline of the Ottoman Empire, he saw an opportunity to take steps toward these goals. The immediate issue involved the rights of Christians in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Orthodox. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. Russia and the Ottoman Empire went to war in October 1853 over Russia's rights to protect Orthodox Christians. Russia gained the upper hand after destroying the Ottoman fleet at the Black Sea port of Sinope; to stop Russia's conquest France and Britain entered in March 1854. Most of the fighting took place for control of the Black Sea, with land battles on the Crimean peninsula in southern Russia. The Russians held their great fortress at Sevastopol for over a year. After it fell, peace became possible, and was arranged at Paris in March 1856. The religion issue had already been resolved. The main results were that the Black Sea was neutralised—Russia would not have any warships there—and the two provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent under nominal Ottoman rule. Importance: The Crimean War broke up long-standing European power relationships and effectively destroyed the Concert of Eruope.

On the Origin of Species (1859)

On the Origin of Species or On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection's basic idea was that all plants and animals had evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life, a principle which was known as organic evolution. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin discussed plant and animal species only. He wasn't concerned w/ humans themsleves and only later applied his theory of natural selection to humans. Importance: On the Origin of Species explained the evolution in the principle of natural selection.

Dual Monarchy

See Ausgleich

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation

The American Civil War was a very bloody struggle which lasted from 1861 to 1865. Over the period of 4 years, the Union states of the North mobilized their superior assets and gradually wore down the Confederate forces of the South. As the war dragged on, it had the effect of radicalizing public opinion in the North. What began as a war to save the Union became a war against slaver. On Jan 1, 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made most of the nation's slaves "forever free." The increasingly effective Union blockade of the South, combined with a shortage of fighting men, made the Confederate cause desperate by the end of 1864. The final push of Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant forced General Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army to surrender on April 9, 1865. Importance: Although problems lay ahead, the Union victory and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclomation confirmed that the US would be "one nation, indivisible."

Queen Victoria

The British feeling of national pride was well reflected in Queen Victoria, whose reign from 1837 to 1901 was the longest in English history. Her sense of duty and moral respectability reflected the attitutdes of her age, which is known as the Victorian Era. Importance: Queen Victoria was responsible for making the British feel national pride.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

The Frenchman Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease which had enourmous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices in the field of biology. He wasn't a doctor, but a chemist who looked at medical problesm in a scientific way. In 1857, he went to Paris, where experiements he conducted proved that microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the process of fermentation, thereby launching the science of bacteriology. His examination of a disease threatening the wine industry led to the development in 1863 of a process-known as pasteurization-for heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoliage. In 1877, Pasteur turned his attention to human diseases, and his want to do more than identify disease-producing organisms led him to a preventive vaccine against rabies in 1885. In the 1890s, the principle of vaccination was extended to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague, creating a modern immunological sciecen. Importance: Pasteur's work and that of those who followed him in isolating the specific bacteriological causes of several diseases had a far-reaching impact. By providing a rational means of treating and preventing infectious diseases, they transformed the medical world, and both the practice of surgery and public health experienced a renaissance.

the People's Will

The People's Will was a group of radicals that was encouraged by Zasulich's successful use of violence against the tsarist regime (Zasulich's advocated the use of violence to conteract the violent repression of the tsarist reigme). The People's Will succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881, when his son and successor, Alexander III, turned against reform and returned to the traditional methods of repression. Importance: The People's Will succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881.

battles of Sadowa and Sedan

The Prussian armies advanced into France, and at Sedan on September 2, 1870, an entire French army and Napoleon III himself were captured. The Second French Empire collapsed, but the war was not yet over. Importance: The Battle of Sedan ultimately led to the end of the Franco-Prussian War.

Zollverein

The Zollverein was a German customs union, formed by Prussia in 1834. By eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among member states, the Zollverein had stimulted trade and added to the prosperity of its member states. By 1853, all the German states except Austria had joined the Prussian-dominated customs union. A number of middle-class liberals now began to see Prussia in a new light' some even looked openly to Prussia to bring about the unification of Germany. Importance: The Zollverein was a German customs union, formed by Prussia in 1834, that lead to Prussia gaining a large amount of respect from several middle-class liberals.

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) and William Gladstone (1809-1898)

The extension of the right to vote had an important byproduct as it forced the Liberal and Conservative Parties to organize carefully in order to manipulate the electorate. Party discipline intensified, and the rivalry btw the Liberals and the Conservatives became a regular feature of parliamentary life. In large part this was due to the personal and political oppoisition of the two leaders of these parties: Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli was the Tory leader in Parliament who was motivated by the want to achieve victory over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party to write the Reform Act of 1867. Gladstone was the leader of the Whigs (now called the Liberals) party who was responsible for a series of impressive reforms during the first Liberal administration of his, from 1868-1874. Legislation and gov orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot for voting, and abolsihed th practice of purchasing military commissions. The Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children. These reforms were typically liberal. By eliminating abuses and enabling ppl w/ talent to compete fairly, they sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions. Importance: The political and personal opposition of Disraeli and Gladstone ultimately ended in a benefical way: with new acts.

The Communist Manifesto

The start of Marxism can be linked to the 1848 publicaion of The Communist Manifesto, a short treatise written by two Germans, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto proclaimed the ideas of a revolutionary socialism. Marx was a radical journalist. Marx met Friedrich Engels, a man who became his lifelong friend and financial patron, after moving to Paris following the newspaper he worked for being suppressed because of his radical views. Engels would contribute his knowledge of actual working conditions as well as monetary assitance to the financially strapped Marx. They joined a small group of mostly German socialist revolutionaries known as the Communist League. They were both enthusiastic advocates of the radical working-class movement and agreed to draft a statement of their ideas for the league. The resulting Communist Manifesto appeared on the eve of the revolutions of 1848. Readers might think that the pamphlet alone had caused this revolutionary upheaval, but was known to only a few of Marx's friends. The closing words were obviously meant to rouse the working classes to action, they passed unnoticed in 1848. The Communist Manifesto stated the belief that the gov of the state relfected and defended the interests of the industrial middle class and its allies. It also showed Marx's and Engel's belief in a classless society, which would lead to progress in sience, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all. Importance: The Communist Manifesto became one of the most influential political treatises in modern European history.

Realism

The term Realism was first employed in 1850 to describe a new style of painting and soon spread to literature. The literary Realists of the mid-19th century were distinguished by their deliberate rejection of Romanticism. The literary Realists wanted to deal w/ ordinary characters from real life than Romantic heroes in unusual settings.Realists often combined their interest in everyday life with a searching examination of social questions. Romanticism in art had been paralleled by the classical school of painting, but both were superseded by the new mood of the mid-19th century. In art, too, Realism became dominant after 1850, although Romanticism was by no means obsolete. The most important characteristics of Realism were a desire to depict the everday life of ordinary people, be they peasants, workers, or prostitutues; an attempt at photographic realism; and an interest in the natural environment. The mid 19th century also witnessed the development of a new group of musicians known as the New German School. They emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form and championed new methods of using music to express literary or pictorial ideas. Importance: Realism was a new style of literature, art, and music that showed the belief that the world should be viewed realistically, and was closely relted to the materialistic outlook.

Richard Wagner (1813-1883) and Gesamtkunstwerk

Wagner was Liszt's son-in-law. He realized the German desire for a truly national opera, and was not only a composer but a propagandist and writer, advocating his unique conception of dramatic music, which was known as the culmination of the Romantic era and the beginning of the avant-garde. Wagner's music may be described as a monumental development in classical music. Wagner believed that opera is the best form of artistic expression, and so he transformed opera into "music drama" through his Gesamtkunstwerk ("total art work"), a musical composition for the threater in which music, acting dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole. He abandoned the traditional divisions of opera, which interrupted the dramatic line of the work, and instead used a device called a leitmotiv, a reccuring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra instead of rising above it. His operas mix literally 100's of leitmotivs in order to tell the story. Importance: Wagner's music and the Gesmtkunstwerk transformed the development of classical music.

Ausgleich

When the Austro-Prussian War struck again, the Austrians delt w/ the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians. The result was the negotiated Ausgleich, or Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of the empire now had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital (Vienna for Austria and Buda-soon to be united w/ Pest, across the river-for Hungary). Holding the two states together were asingle monarch (Francis Joseph was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary) and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances. In domestic affairs, the Hungarians had become an independent nation. The Ausgleich, however, didn't satisfy the other nationalities that made up the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Dual Monarchy smiply enabled the German-speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate the minorities, especially the Slavic peoples (Poles, Croats, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Little Russians), in their respective states. Importance: The Ausgleich was a compromise made in 1867 that created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The nationalities problem that came along w/ this act persisted until the demise of the empire at the end of World War I.

"survival of the fit"

Within Darwin's explanation for evolution in the principle of natural selection was the idea of the "survival of the fit." Those that were naturally selected for survival ("survival of the fit") survived. The unfit did not, and therefore became extinct. The fit who did survive propogated and passed on the variations that enabled them to survive until, from Darwin's pov, a new separate species emerged. Importance: The idea of the "survial of the fit" was crucial to the idea of natural selection and organic evolution.