Chapter 3 Independence and the Brith of a National Military

Explain the challenges the Royal Navy had to overcome.

As mighty as the Royal Navy was, it, too, had challenges to overcome. Many of the great ships of the line built during the 1756-1763 war needed refurbishing due to poor maintenance or mothballing at the end of that war. Unlike the previous war, in this one the Royal Navy had to maintain its main logistical line back to Portsmouth in England. American naval stores, pitch and tar, and most importantly timber for masts and spars were no longer available, forcing the British to seek these vital supplies elsewhere and often in inferior form. And unlike the American navy, crewed by volunteers, the Royal Navy still relied on impressments to crew its fleet. Personal motivation for service, be it greed, liberty, or both, simply did not resonate in the Royal Navy as it did among the American navy and privateers.

Explain African American men in the Revolutionary war.

Black men fought for American independence throughout the revolutionary years, but their presence in the ranks was often disputed. Racism and fear of a slave revolt dogged African American men, free or slave, throughout the Revolution.

Who ruled the waters until the French entered the war in 1778?

Britannia ruled the seas until France entered the war in 1778. Now, with the French navy harassing the Royal Navy in the Caribbean and elsewhere, the American navy and privateers had more considerable latitude in commercial raiding. Because such a significant French naval presence now operated in American waters, it was easier for Washington to keep Clinton in New York. Clinton could ill afford to sail with his army out of New York to reinforce Cornwallis in the south lest he be caught on the open seas by the French fleet.

What happened in December 1775?

By December 1775, Washington was encouraging recruiters to give special consideration to African American veterans who wanted to reenlist. Congress approved reenlisting such men, but still prohibited enlistment of other African American volunteers. With permission to reenlist, the gallant Salem Poor stayed with the Continental Army until his discharge in 1780. During his years of service, he fought at White Plains, New York, and endured the Valley Forge winter of 1777-1778. In 1975, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor as part of the Contributors to the Cause Series.

What problems did Great Britain face and how did they compensate for their losses?

Despite the victory over the French in the Great War for Empire, Great Britain faced severe financial and strategic problems. The need for revenue to pay for the war and to sustain a permanent military presence in North America led Parliament to pass a series of revenue acts aimed at the colonists, who until then had rarely paid taxes directly to Great Britain.

What other factor helped American win the war?

Important as France was to the American victory, so too was the role of George Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Washington proved himself adaptive, flexible, and a skilled strategist who kept the army, and thus the revolution, alive. He channeled the varied motives of his volunteers into creating a European-style army that could ultimately face the British army on its own terms. As commander-in-chief, he managed to find subordinate commanders, such as Henry Knox and Nathaniel Greene, who could lead men in battle and maintain a broad strategic view of the war. Washington overcame discontent, hardship, and even mutiny among his troops and some of his officers to persevere against a weak and often ineffective Congress and uncooperative states. While he did not overcome his disdain for the militia, he learned how best to employ them on the battlefield.

What happened when King George III declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion?

In 1775, King George III declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and ordered the colony's militia to stand down. It did not, forcing the British military governor of Massachusetts, General Thomas Gage, into a showdown with the militia. In April, Gage sent 700 regulars to secure stores of arms held by militia near Concord. At Lexington, along the route to Concord, an advance party of British regulars found several dozen militiamen with muskets primed and at the ready awaiting them on the village green. The British ordered the colonials to disperse, after which shots rang out. It is not known who fired the first shot, but volleys were exchanged, killing ten Massachusetts militiamen. The British wisely withdrew from Lexington and doggedly fought their way to Concord, where they found several hundred militia also at the ready. After a fierce skirmish, the British withdrew—in orderly fashion at first, then falling into mass panic as militiamen took potshots at the retreating force all the way back to Boston. The British suffered at least 20 percent casualties among their total strength of more than 1,500.

Describe the matchup between America and the British.

In 1775, the colonies had a population of about 2.5 million, including almost half a million slaves. Great Britain, on the other hand, could boast a population several times that of the colonies as well as a professionally trained army of at least 50,000 men and a navy second to none in quantity and quality. Bookmakers would undoubtedly have placed the British as heavy favorites in this apparent mismatch.

How did Washington struggle to form an army?

In the meantime, Washington struggled to form an army and recover from Benedict Arnold's ambitious but unsuccessful invasion of Canada, undertaken in the vain hope of enlisting Britain's northernmost colony's support for the revolution. Taking a two-pronged pincer-like approach, one wing managed to take Montreal; but Arnold's men suffered tremendously from cold and exposure before reaching Quebec in December 1775. An assault on the fortified city failed, not least because of miserable weather and Arnold being severely wounded. The rebels laid siege to Quebec until the spring of 1776 when the arrival of British reinforcements forced them to withdraw. Battered and exhausted, Arnold's force withdrew southward, ending the gamble to make Canada part of the revolution.

When was the first submarine used?

The Continental Navy used the first submarine in a combat operation in 1776. The Turtle, a single-man underwater craft operated by Ezra Lee, unsuccessfully attempted to attach an underwater mine to HMSEagle, the flagship of the British fleet at New York. Western navies would continue to experiment with underwater craft throughout the nineteenth century before perfecting their use during the two world wars of the twentieth century.

Explain how the Continental Navy affected the war.

The Continental Navy, on the other hand, was pitiably small and on paper hopelessly outgunned and inexperienced when compared to the Royal Navy. At its height during the war, the Navy had fewer than 60 ships, including 13 frigates, ten of which were either destroyed or captured by the British. To support the Navy, Congress established a Naval Committee under the leadership of Robert Morris and ordered the states to recruit men for naval service. None of the states reached their recruitment goals, in part because many seamen opted for serving aboard a privateer. All of the states, save New Jersey and Delaware, formed navies of their own, made up mostly of small ships to defend coastlines and ports; all of the states authorized privateering.

Explain how the revolutionary war affected the newly independent United States of America.

The War for Independence made the American Revolution possible, a revolution that was realized in the drafting and ratification of the Constitution in 1787-1789. The United States had been born through the force of arms. A dual citizen army made up of both militia and volunteers made it possible to break the link binding the colonies with Great Britain, but the hardships of that process did not go unnoticed when the framers of the Constitution considered how to provide for the security of the United States. Civilian control over the military was maintained throughout the process of securing independence and establishing a national government. No hereditary military class grew out of this experience, as many had feared might occur.

Who was Salem Poor?

The earliest engagements of the American Revolution, the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, and the Battle of Breed's Hill (Bunker Hill) two months later, included African American men who fought well and became a permanent part of the independence story. Another former slave, Salem Poor, received credit for killing the commander of British forces at Breed's Hill. Poor's regiment awarded him a gallantry commendation for his actions that day.

What happened in Shays rebellion?

The event's namesake, Daniel Shays, was a veteran of the War for Independence. After fighting at Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Stony Point, Shays fell on hard times upon returning to his farm in Pelham, Massachusetts. Shays had attended several town meetings to air farmers' grievances, and when the Massachusetts legislature adjourned in the summer of 1786 without addressing these concerns, the farmers decided to shut down court proceedings in Northampton and Worcester. With his military experience, Shays was chosen to lead the 'army' of farmers against the militia that Massachusetts governor James Bowdoin sent to quell the uprising. Shays led his band of rebels to Springfield in January 1787 to capture the arsenal there but were turned back by Bowdoin's militia, under the command of Benjamin Lincoln and Rufus Putnam. Lincoln chased Shays and his army of about 1,200 to Petersham, where he defeated the rebels and ended the rebellion. Shays escaped. Newly elected governor John Hancock addressed many of the farmers' concerns and pardoned all of the rebels except for Shays and other leaders of the uprising. Shays was tried and convicted in absentia for treason and sentenced to death but was later pardoned.

Explain the assault on Nassau and what resulted?

The many actions fought by the Navy during the war included an assault on Nassau by Esek Hopkins. Inexperienced and rash, Hopkins disobeyed orders to patrol the Chesapeake Bay area and instead attempted to capture the British port at Nassau in the Bahamas. While the raid was partly successful, HMS Glasgow found Hopkins and his 24-gun frigate USS Alfred off the coast of Connecticut making its way back to port. Hopkins lost his ship and was subsequently court- martialed for disobeying orders.

What did states reserve?

The states reserved the right to maintain their own militias, which would serve as a check against the national standing army. But they lost all other sovereign uses of military power. They could not declare war, enter into alliances, or maintain an army or navy in peacetime. States appointed their own militia officers, but training, procurement, and organization were mandated by Congress to assure uniformity and effectiveness.

What helped America win the war?

Victory could not have been achieved without France, which played the odd role of a monarchy helping to create a republic with not only no king but without hereditary titles of any sort. France had much to gain from seeing the American rebellion succeed: revenge for the total defeat in the previous conflict, delivering a severe blow to the British mercantile system through the loss of its colonies in America, and establishing a primary trade relationship with the new United States. All of these achievements would benefit France and its power on the European continent and abroad.

Explain how Washington finally had an opportunity to deliver a decisive blow to the British.

With Cornwallis in southern Virginia, Clinton still bottled up in New York, and the French Caribbean fleet willing to sail northward to escape hurricane season in the Caribbean, Washington finally had an opportunity to deliver a decisive blow to the British. Effectively abandoning Georgia and the Carolinas, Cornwallis left only token forces to hold strategic centers in the south. Nathaniel Greene was able to reclaim the southernmost states for the rebel cause, even though he did not command a single victorious battle. As Cornwallis's forces gathered at Yorktown in Virginia, Washington ordered an American force under the Marquis de Lafayette to trap them there. Following his army and the Comte de Rochambeau's 7,000 French troops, Washington abandoned his original hope to converge his land force and the French fleet of the Comte de Grasse on the British at New York. Now, with de Grasse sailing toward the Chesapeake and Cornwallis on the Yorktown peninsula, Washington decided instead to bag Cornwallis.

What problems made the United States worry?

With an ocean discouraging European intervention into the affairs of the new republic, security seemed assured. But such was not the case; the United States faced threats from within and abroad, threats that forced the nation to continue to consider its military establishment and use of military power in a democracy.

What was created after deciding to scrap the Articles of Confederation?

Deciding to scrap the old Articles of Confederation, the delegates created a new government structure based upon balance and separation of powers to provide for the security of the new nation while at the same time protecting the power of the states and individual rights from burdensome government intrusion. It was a delicate process that required compromise and forethought, for the nation would surely change and grow with coming generations.

What did Cornwallis find a strategically advantageous location?

Cornwallis understandably found Yorktown a strategically advantageous location. It afforded access to the sea for resupply or rescue, but because it lay on a peninsula, Yorktown could also be quickly cut off. Sea access disappeared in early September, however, when de Grasse and his French fleet, in the Battle of the Chesapeake, forced the British fleet to withdraw to New York.

Who were awarded pensions?

Margaret Cochran Corbin, or Captain Molly, was seriously wounded during an artillery exchange while fighting alongside her husband during the Battle of Fort Washington. Congress awarded her a disability pension. Later she became one of the Corps of Invalids at West Point and is buried at the United States Military Academy. Other women masqueraded as men to join the fight. Historians will never know precisely how many women chose to do this, but there are a few for whom there are clear records. Deborah Sampson first enlisted as Timothy Thayer in 1782. When she was discovered, she enlisted in another regiment as Robert Shurtleff. When she fell ill with fever the doctor who treated her protected her secret but sent her to see George Washington, who gave her an honorable discharge. Massachusetts later granted Sampson a pension for her service.

What happened when Howe occupied New York City?

Although Arnold had managed to stop the British approach down Lake Champlain, Howe comfortably occupied New York City. Washington laid low in New Jersey throughout the fall and winter of 1776-1777 so that he could rebuild his fading army. Making no progress in his efforts to get the rebels to surrender, Howe reluctantly sent the able General Lord Charles Cornwallis into New Jersey in pursuit of Washington. In a bitter winter campaign, during which the Americans more frequently employed guerrilla tactics than they fought a conventional war, Cornwallis and Washington dueled across the New Jersey countryside, fighting for food and forage and inflicting as much damage upon the other's force as possible. In Congress, some delegates argued that Washington should be sacked for incompetence. This was not the last time that Congress and Washington were at odds; fickle delegates repeatedly demanded that Washington be replaced. In turn, Washington refused to hide his frustration with Congress for failing to adequately supply the army.

Explain how recruiters looked at African Americans during this time.

Although proscriptions against enlisting free men or slaves remained in effect throughout the Revolution, governing authorities learned to turn a blind eye to the color of recruits in favor of the revolutionary cause.

What was the biggest decision made by the Continental Congress?

As more colonial militia descended upon the outskirts of Boston to contain British forces, the Continental Congress made its most monumental decision of the war. Even though there would be an army, each state demanded to retain its respective militia. Having a coexistent army and militia unintentionally created a dual army tradition in the new nation. An army was necessary, requiring not only soldiers to fill its ranks but someone to lead them. The Continental Congress simultaneously had to build the army while using it to fight the British. Moreover, Congress also had to find a commanding general to both form the militias into a usable force and lead the new army. Few in the colonies had that sort of military experience, and fewer still were willing to place their lives on the line for the cause.

What did the first Congress enumerate?

As part of the compromise to attain ratification, however, the first Congress that met in 1789 was obliged to enumerate rights not listed in the Constitution. These amendments to the Constitution collectively became known as the Bill of Rights and included important protections against abuses by a standing military. The Second Amendment ensured that citizens had the right to own firearms in case there was a need for a well-regulated militia. Mindful of the uproar caused by the Quartering Act, the Third Amendment prohibited the quartering of troops in people's homes.

What acts caused anger in the colonies?

As revenue generators, the Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765 elicited fervent protests among some segments of the colonial populace. With a stagnant postwar economy and resentment against Parliamentary intrusion into what had been the purview of colonial legislatures, colonial resistance to these taxes erupted in a string of riots and attacks against tax collectors. A Stamp Act Congress of representatives from across the colonies met to formally protest the hated Stamp Tax. Parliament repealed both acts more because the taxes did not raise the intended revenue than because of colonial protest, but also reminded the colonies of Parliament's supremacy over the colonies through the Declaratory Act of 1766.

What did the Constitutional Convention try to do for its people?

As what became the Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787, few of those present doubted that the principal purpose of a national government was to provide for the security of the nation and its citizens. Exactly how to provide that security without also creating a potentially oppressive centralized government that could endanger the rights of those same citizens was a question that occupied much of the ensuing debate that long hot summer. One of the first decisions made by the delegates reflected the importance of military matters in reforming the national government. Convinced to come out of retirement to return to public life as a delegate from Virginia, George Washington was chosen to preside over the convention. Who else but the man who epitomized civic virtue despite having exercised supreme military power could symbolically assure the American people that the secret meetings in the Pennsylvania state house were for the public good?

What happened to Washington's army during the winter?

Assuming that the southern colonies were under British control, Clinton departed for New York, leaving mopping-up operations to General Cornwallis. Meanwhile, in Morristown, New Jersey, Washington and his army endured an even worse winter than they had at Valley Forge. Mutinies, desertion, sickness, and death once again threatened to defeat the cause, for if Washington's army disintegrated, so too would the rebellion.

Explain the clash between Greene and Cornwallis.

At Guilford Courthouse in March, Greene and Cornwallis clashed in a substantial but disorganized battle that left both sides badly battered. Even though the British commanded the field, they had again suffered debilitating casualties. Greene escaped with the remnants of his army, and Cornwallis, short of men and supplies, decided to move into Virginia in the hope of getting help from Clinton in New York. With French land and naval assistance finally available, Washington seemed to have the edge as the war entered its climactic moment.

What was the British strategy?

At first, the British followed a strategy of containment. By containing the rebel cancer in and around Boston, the British army hoped to excise it before it spread to other parts of the colonies. After this strategy failed, the British then tried to lure the American army into a traditional set-piece battle in which the rebel force could be totally destroyed; such a decisive victory would end the rebellion. The problem was in determining exactly how to do this. Logistical needs tied the British to a base of operations, which in this case would have to be a deep-water port. Conducting operations away from such a crucial base was risky, as supply lines would get strung out and become vulnerable to rebel attack. With few roads and uncertain knowledge of the land, the British could not afford long campaigns deep into the American interior.

What else did nationalist officers expect?

At issue among these officers was more than just back pay and promised pensions, however. Many nationalist officers and like-minded members of Congress wished to increase the power of Congress to strengthen the central government over the growing influence of the individual states, which had plagued national governance during the war. General Alexander McDougall presented a petition to Congress from these officers that demanded the pension in one lump-sum payment. Despite strong support among nationalists in Congress and implied threats that the army might not obey a congressional order to disband, Congress refused the petition. The old fear of a standing army still held prominence despite the Continental Army's vital role in achieving independence; it had fulfilled its duty and was no longer needed. At Newburgh, gossip and idle talk escalated; various circulars were passed around the officer corps in camp, including one that called for a meeting to respond to Congress's refusal to meet their demands and another that outright threatened mutiny against congressional authority.

Where did Washington take his army?

Between his Continentals and militia Washington now had almost 20,000 troops. He took them to New York to defend the city against Howe's invasion. Recruiting men for the new Continental Army had been, and remained, extremely difficult. Fear of a standing army was the least of Washington's recruiting problems. Militia service carried more prestige, short enlistments, and, often, better supplies. Service in the new army, on the other hand offered sustained privation, inadequate supplies, and little else. Still, despite a host of deferments and different ways to avoid serving, many men chose to serve in Washington's army. The Continental Army never reached more than half its authorized strength, and while men from all segments of American society served as soldiers, most came from the lower rungs of the colonial social ladder.

Explain what happened to America because of the revolution.

Born of this revolution, the United States of America and its fledging military successfully fought a war for independence and then experienced postwar economic and political problems that forced the new nation to reconfigure its governing administration and its military establishment. Achieving this was difficult because the colonial traditions of loathing centralized authority, abhorring a standing military, and regarding militia highly survived the revolution and greatly influenced the way the new nation approached military affairs and national security.

What did Parliament think during this time when these uproars occurred?

Boston already had a large garrison of British regulars, but now hundreds more poured into New England's main port. Finally, Boston was placed under martial law. While Parliament considered the rebellious colonists of Massachusetts primarily a localized problem, across the colonies many wondered how far Parliament would go to regain control not only of Massachusetts but of all the colonies.

What strategies did America form to defeat the British?

Both sides nonetheless attempted to develop strategies that played to their strengths and took advantage of the other side's weaknesses. For the Americans, forming an army that could stand against the British juggernaut was paramount. Since there was no center of gravity in the American colonies, such as a central city that if captured would cause the entire movement to collapse, such an army could move about the colonies and stay alive. It was imperative that the new army avoid a decisive battle with British forces. The Americans also needed the support of a foreign power. France was the obvious candidate. Having lost its North American possessions in the last war, France was eager to get back into the imperial game and break up the British mercantile system in North America.

Who were camp followers?

Camp followers traveled with the army, providing needed services such as cooking, sewing, laundry, and nursing. They were also instrumental in scavenging to supplement short rations. Some provided sex work, but that was not a camp follower's primary function. In fact, camp followers typically 'joined' the army because it was a way to earn wages, to gain protection from the enemy, or because their husbands were in the ranks.

What move then Clinton make in December 1778?

Clinton made his move in December 1778. He secured Savannah with rapidity and ease, a fact that makes his year-long sojourn there before moving on Charleston seem remarkable. This delay allowed the Americans to form a southern Continental army and recruit militia and irregular forces in the Carolinas. Clinton laid siege to Charleston, taking the port city along with Major General Benjamin Lincoln's force of more than 5,000 Continentals a month later. It was indeed a disaster for the Americans, perhaps the greatest of the war.

How did Congress respond to shays rebellion?

Congress attempted to send a force of more than 2,000 men under General Henry Knox to defend the arsenal at Springfield and stop the rebellion, but raised only a token force and was thus left powerless to do much of anything. The Articles of Confederation made Congress impotent to deal with such domestic crises. Shays' Rebellion alerted many, including Washington, to the weaknesses of the Confederation. If Congress could not put down an uprising of Massachusetts farmers, how could it defend the country against a foreign attack? Although it was just one of the many reasons that political leaders from across the states agreed to attend a convention that would reconsider the Articles of Confederation, Shays' Rebellion underscored the need to address the absence of adequate military power at the national level.

What disadvantages did the British face/

Despite their overwhelming military might, the British found themselves in a delicate spot. On the one hand, Parliament certainly had to preserve its control over the American colonies and could not let these rebels set the dangerous precedent of getting away with flouting the mother country's authority over the empire. On the other hand, the economic and philosophical arguments supporting the rebellion rang with some truth for many in Great Britain. How far should the British go to crush a rebellion of subjects of the British Crown? And once broken, then what? Moreover, the sheer logistical requirements of a military campaign in North America were well known to the British. A war against American rebels could be an extremely costly war. Parliament never adequately addressed these problems, nor did it form a cohesive strategy in North America.

Who regulated and prevented African Americans from joining the militia?

During the early months of the Continental Army, significant numbers of African American men enlisted and received praise for their conduct regardless of whether on fatigue duty or under fire. Before long, however, objections arose to their enlistment. In October 1775, George Washington and Congress agreed that the army would no longer accept slaves, and even most free African American men, as soldiers. State militias held to the same policy. The new policy excluded even those African American patriots who had acquitted themselves well at places like Lexington and Breed's Hill. There were no official objections, however, to using African American men as laborers. As the war lengthened, and enthusiasm for service waned, however, the white-only policy became less important than filling enlistment quotas.

How did the participation of the French, the Spanish and the Netherlands affect the war?

Failing to destroy the rebellion at its heart in Massachusetts, and missing more than a few opportunities to wipe out Washington's small but determined army in New York and New Jersey, the British tried another tack. The face of the war had changed dramatically in 1778 when France entered the fray as both ally of the American rebels and worldwide belligerent against Great Britain. Holland and Spain also joined the war, which now had become a world war with combat operations in India, the Mediterranean, the South Atlantic, and elsewhere. North America, in some respects, became a secondary theater. Now, in addition to fighting a war in North America and coping with its increasing cost, Great Britain had to consider its own security against French attack. More members of Parliament began to question the war in America, and British public opinion seemed to be swinging against this expensive and lengthy war.

What did Washington think of his victory in the Revolutionary war?

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Washington came to embody the ideals of the revolution. He was an elitist who expected deference, but he also genuinely practiced public virtue. While it would have been easy for him to abandon the rebel cause and defend the interests of his native Virginia, he did not. Even at the expense of Virginia's security, throughout the conflict Washington managed to retain perspective and see the revolution as a national movement.

How did Washington feel about the wars end?

Following the victory at Yorktown, Washington and his army nervously kept watch over the remaining British troops that continued to occupy New York and Charleston as peace negotiations commenced in Paris. Washington by no means took it for granted that the war was actually over, for much of the British army in America and Canada remained undefeated. French attempts to influence the new United States stalled the peace talks until, finally, the American negotiators abandoned the French and made a deal directly with the British. Among other things, the Treaty of Paris, ratified by Congress in 1783, guaranteed American independence, established American control of all territory westward to the Mississippi River, and promised British withdrawal from posts west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Explain how America was affected by the War.

For the Americans, the war had been a bloody affair, one of the deadliest as a percentage of casualties in proportion to population in American history. More than 25,000 soldiers lost their lives, mostly from disease and privation; the death toll amounted to just less than 1 percent of the population (the Civil War, by comparison, cost the lives of slightly more than 1.6 percent of the population). Victory had been hard-won. Indeed, the Americans took advantage of localism and of their familiarity with the terrain, and they fought the war in a way that did not alienate the bulk of the population. Despite bickering among the states and Congress, and Washington's seemingly insurmountable problems of supply, enlistment, mutiny, and the overall poor condition of the Continental Army, America prevailed.

Who was elected to lead the Army of the colonies?

George Washington, however, wanted the job and Congress gave it to him. He had been a delegate to both Continental Congresses and wore his Virginia militia uniform while Congress was in session. He was capable, had a commanding presence, had limited but valuable military experience, and served a broader political purpose for Congress, which needed to shape the rebellion into more of a 'continental' movement. As a Virginian, Washington was not part of the radical Massachusetts revolutionary crowd. But some feared that as Virginian Washington would defend only Virginia's interests in the conflict. Washington promised that he would do what was best for the colonies as whole, favoring no region or particular interest. He kept his word.

Why did the British lose to America?

Great Britain had underestimated the problems posed by the American interior with its deep forests, hills, valleys, rivers, and rugged landscape. Logistical challenges plagued the British effort to end the rebellion, as did the lack of a coherent strategy and poor generalship. Perhaps their most critical mistake was in failing to convince the nonaligned American colonists to join the loyalist cause, as well as a failure to effectively use the one-third who were indeed loyal; instead, bumbling policies and inept commanders managed to alienate both groups. Carrying on a war in such a place and in such a manner for six years to an inglorious conclusion would shake any nation to its core, as it did Great Britain during the American War for Independence.

Explain how the new constitution affected the government.

Great debate surrounded the new document. The ratification process stirred nationalist and anti-nationalist emotions alike. Those against a strong national government created by the Constitution argued that the document gave excessive military power to the federal government and the president in particular. Nationalists countered that checks and balances made it extremely unlikely that any government body or individual would be able to undertake such an abuse of power. In the end, the Constitution was ratified by the summer of 1788, putting a new government in place in 1789.

What did Hamilton do to Washington's ideas?

Hamilton liked the proposals, not least because they suited his nationalist political leanings. He accepted Washington's ideas in principle but went further to centralize the new military in the national government rather than in the states, as had been the militia tradition. Hamilton proposed that Congress, rather than the states, appoint officers, recruit and pay the troops, and supply the army. He also wanted to make the national army the core for an expansible army during a national emergency. Finally, the committee recommended that the new national army be an army of citizen volunteers rather than made up of state militia.

Who did Hamilton solicit to create an army?

Hamilton's committee solicited the opinion of Washington, who, in turn, asked his senior generals, including Knox and von Steuben, to weigh in on the matter. All supported creating a national army to police the western frontier, establishing a navy, building coastal fortifications and arsenals to equip this force, and founding military schools to promote the study of the military arts. All agreed that militia was inadequate for these functions.

How did colonists feel about taxes?

Having managed their own affairs for several decades, the colonists took for granted that Parliament's salutary neglect would continue. Beginning in 1763, however, this lax attitude toward the colonies came to an abrupt halt. A preemptive measure, the Proclamation Line of 1763, prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachians, aimed to prevent further conflict with Native Americans. The colonists, believing western settlement a spoil of victory over the French, thought the Line an arbitrary restriction of their right to pursue their happiness.

How did British Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton treat his prisoners of war?

In June, British Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton and his Loyalist British Legion defeated a force of Virginia militia at the Waxhaws near Lancaster, South Carolina. Known for his ruthlessness and hatred of those he considered traitors against the Crown, Tarleton apparently gave no quarter, killing more than 100 Virginians despite them throwing down their muskets in surrender. The way the war was being fought began to matter. Washington had already mandated that all surrendering British troops be treated as prisoners of war in the European tradition of warfare—with the utmost respect and best possible care. The British, on the other hand, treated American prisoners as well as non-combatants inconsistently and often brutally.

Where did Howe relocate his base and what did he do?

In Nova Scotia, Howe decided to relocate his primary base of operations to New York City in August 1776. The previous month the colonies had unanimously declared their independence from Great Britain, making an official and hopefully permanent break with the mother country. Sensing that strong loyalist sentiment among New Yorkers would provide better accommodations for his growing force than would the uninviting citizens of Boston, Howe sent more than 30,000 men—supported by a large Royal Navy fleet commanded by Howe's brother Vice Admiral Richard Howe—to invest Manhattan Island. A smaller force of British regulars made their way down Lake Champlain from Canada to recapture Fort Ticonderoga and link with Howe in New York City.

What was Shay's Rebellion?

In September 1786, a mob of angry farmers in western Massachusetts descended upon Springfield to protest requirements that property taxes be paid in specie rather than with paper currency. A struggling postwar economy, high taxes, restrictive requirements for voting and office holding, foreclosures, and the threat of debtors' prison made life difficult for many in rural Massachusetts. It seemed that the divide between the political and financial power of Boston versus the poor economic conditions of the Massachusetts hinterland had reached a breaking point. Instigated by Samuel Ely and Luke Day, what became known as Shays' Rebellion started as a farmer's protest but turned into an armed rebellion.

What happened when 20,000 militia men besieged Gage and his garrison of regulars in Boston?

In a matter of days, more than 20,000 militiamen besieged Gage and his garrison of regulars in Boston. The Second Continental Congress (1775-1776) formally reorganized the ragtag force surrounding Boston as a national or 'continental' army. On June 14, 1775, it created the Continental Army. The 'shot heard round the world' had now pushed the colonies past the point of no return. The first phase of the American Revolution had ended, as the national political institutions that had evolved since 1765 were now in place to conduct a war for independence. The second phase of the Revolution, the war itself, had now begun.

What did Washington report in his to Hamilton?

In his final report to Hamilton, Washington recommended these proposals and additionally suggested that active-duty militia should serve as a real national army to discourage foreign attack and defend the western frontier. Four infantry regiments and one artillery regiment, some 2,600 officers and men, could protect New England against an attack from Canada, defend the Great Lakes region, patrol the Ohio River Valley, and protect the Georgia and Carolina frontier. Arsenals, a military staff, and even a military academy to train artillerists and engineers rounded out Washington's plan for a national military establishment.

What did the New Constitution provide for military matters?

In military matters, the new Constitution provided for the creation of a national military establishment, the power over which was shared between the new Congress and the chief executive, or president. Article 1 authorized Congress to establish an army and navy and collect taxes to provide for the maintenance of both. It could also regulate and provide for militia and use state militia in national service. Funding for the army was limited to two years so that Congress could determine whether to continue the existence of a standing army via new budgetary appropriations.

Was the colonies really ready for war with the most powerful nation in the world?

It is extraordinary that the colonies ultimately managed to sufficiently unify themselves in common cause to build an army, attract the support of France, and defeat the most powerful military in the world. At first, the Continental Congress simply wanted Parliament to restore the rights of the colonies, but as this objective became less attainable, Congress decided upon independence as the only alternative. With no professional army, no navy, no money, no support from an outside power, a divided populace (many of whom did not want independence), and many poorly learned lessons in their collective military past, the colonies warred against the most powerful nation in the world.

What did the Quartering act allow?

Moreover, the new Quartering Act allowed Great Britain to force colonists in Massachusetts to do what British subject sin England had been doing for decades--housing British troops in their own homes.

What happened when the French increased their presence of the Navy in the Caribbean?

Moreover, with an increased French naval presence in the Caribbean the British needed a base of operations south of New York to augment naval stations in the West Indies. Charleston on the coast of South Carolina was perfect. From there, Clinton planned to gain control of the Carolinas and then move up to Virginia.

What played a crucial role in the war?

Naval operations during the American War for Independence are often overshadowed by the land war. Facing the mightiest navy in the world, the American rebels had woefully little with which to meet the British at sea. Still, the small American navy, formally created in October 1775, played a crucial role in the war.

What strategy did the Continental Navy take to face the Royal Navy?

Not yet mature enough to engage in fleet actions against the Royal Navy, the Americans followed their privateering tradition and went after defenseless merchantmen on the high seas. This strategy actually proved useful, forcing the Royal Navy to take valuable ships away from blockade duty—and, later, from fighting the French navy—and reassign them to convoy duty to protect British merchantmen from American raiders. In the young Continental Navy, bold captains, such as Nicholas Biddle and John Paul Jones, had better success in harassing British trade than in engaging ships of the line. Jones even operated near the British coast. So effective was this strategy that the British suffered tremendous commercial losses during the war, which greatly displeased business interests in Parliament. Throughout the war, American privateers and the Continental Navy accounted for more than $60 million in losses for the British merchant fleets.

What was the best way to win the revolutionary war for both sides?

Of equal importance for both the British and the American revolutionaries was winning the support of unaligned colonists. Traditionally, historians have estimated that approximately one-third of the population supported independence, another third remained loyal to the Crown, and the remaining third did not lean either way. Convincing these unaligned people to join the cause for independence or stay loyal greatly influenced the way both sides fought the war.

How did these laws passed by Parliament affect the colonies?

Parliament then embarked upon a series of similar restrictive measures and revenue acts, each causing varying degrees of reaction from the colonies. The hundreds of thousands of pounds expended annually to maintain several thousand British troops in the colonies, Parliament asserted, was a cost that should be absorbed by the colonist themselves. Clinging to their militia tradition and distrust of standing armies, the colonists believed that the presence of British regulars was unnecessary and intrusive.

How else did women play a role in the war?

Patriot women spied on the British as well as Loyalists, generally as the opportunity arose rather than through organized effort. Because they were women, they were less suspect than men, and soldiers were more reluctant to question their motives or search them. As a result, women such as Lydia Darragh and Emily Geiger were able to use their household duties and their biological sex to avoid being discovered. Darragh's information allowed Washington's troops at White Marsh, Pennsylvania, to prepare for an impending attack by the British. Because the British were unwilling to search Geiger, she had time to memorize and destroy a written message from General Nathanial Green to General Thomas Sumter. Upon her release she delivered Greene's request for Sumter's aid in time for Sumter to reinforce Greene's effort.

Explain African American roles in the Navy.

Service in the Continental Navy was always open to African American men. Life at sea lacked all ordinary comforts, required months or even years of separation from family, and the work was especially difficult and dangerous. At sea, African American men typically faced none of the restrictions imposed in the army. All duties—caulking, handling sails—and risks—manning guns and fighting in boarding parties—were obligations of all sailors.

How did the British try to take advantage of slavery in the war?

Some fighting had already occurred in the Carolinas, mostly to the advantage of the British. Without strategic guidance in the south, however, the British failed to take full advantage of these small successes. Clinton believed that loyalists in the southern colonies would rally to the Crown, and he thought that the prominence of slavery in the southern colonies could be used to British advantage. All this talk of freedom might place slavery in jeopardy, and thus, the reasoning went, more Southerners might stick with the British in the long run. Clinton also hoped that regiments of volunteer loyalists would augment his shrinking army in North America. Battle and disease were taking their toll on the British just as they had on the Americans, and with a broader war, fewer reinforcements would be coming to America.

Explain how the Royal Navy affected the war.

The Royal Navy blockaded much of the Atlantic seaboard throughout the war but kept its own shipping lanes open to allow limited trade and to enable resupply. To combat this situation, Congress created a navy and also granted letters of marque to privateers. During the colonial wars, American seamen had learned that privateering was often lucrative and thus many seamen forwent service in the new navy to instead pursue privateering. By the end of the war, American privateers (more than 1,500 of them) had captured more than 600 British ships.

Describe the advantages of the Colonies.

The advantages and disadvantages for each side, however, did not stop at the mere number of population and troops. Consider that the American revolutionaries (or rebels from the British point of view) had the benefit of knowing the land, waterways, and the political mood of people across the colonies. This localism was a distinct advantage over the British, who often did not have as good a grasp of local conditions. The Americans also had the benefit of fighting a defensive war. In essence, they did not necessarily have to win—all they had to do was avoid losing. They fought for liberty, freedom, and rights that they had always assumed as British subjects. Still, they were not professional soldiers, had little money, and did not enjoy total popular support. Moreover, the colonies were united only in the cause for independence; beyond that they bickered amongst themselves over resources, men, and money throughout the conflict.

What happened in 1775?

The answer came in 1775. For over a year, the Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence had been working feverishly to build colonial support for armed resistance against British intrusion into colonial affairs. The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to alleviate the crisis with the mother country and hesitantly began to prepare for the worst while hoping to find a peaceful resolution. Militias trained, gathered and stored arms, and listened to impassioned sermons and read political tracts urging the colonists to stand firm in defense of their rights as subjects of the British Crown.

What did the coercive acts do?

The following year Parliament passed a series of punitive measures that the colonists collectively called the Coercive Acts. These included closing the port of Boston, limiting freedom of assembly across Massachusetts, and moving trials involving British officials and soldiers out of the colony.

What was the First American Regiment?

The national government did not yet have the legal structure or the political will to create a permanent military structure. As it stood in 1784, the best Congress could do was to raise a temporary force of 700 state militia to defend the frontier against Indian attack. The next year, Congress transformed this hodgepodge creation into a regular army unit called the 1st American Regiment. Under the command of Pennsylvanian Josiah Harmar, the 1st American Regiment never had the strength or the support to effectively deal with either Native Americans or the British on the frontier.

What did the Tea act cause?

The passage of the 1773 Tea Act placed the American colonies squarely on the path toward independence. Previous parliamentary measures and the colonial reaction to them had been relatively contained, but the Tea Act sparked more passionate widespread protest. In December 1773, the Sons of Liberty led a mob in dumping hundreds of pounds of the East India Tea Company's tea overboard from company ships anchored in Boston Harbor. Faced with wanton destruction of private property and angry stockholders, Parliament now had to respond with a firm hand.

What did Washington plan to help the Colonies prepare for future conflict?

The problem was, however, to create such an establishment without arousing traditional fears of a standing army, without creating an elite military class, and without giving the new government the power to tax. To make the concept more appealing to the states, Washington and his colleagues proposed reforming the traditional militia system by making it uniform from state to state, improving training, and improving the quality of the militia officer corps. With such improvements, a standing national army of militia numbering perhaps around 25,000 could be at the ready to defend the nation from any outside attack.

Where did the turning point for the Americans come?

The turning point for the Americans in the south came at the Battle of the Cowpens in South Carolina in January 1781. Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, a veteran of the French and Indian War, and his joint force of Continentals and militia, capitalized on the increased discipline of his regulars and superior tactical use of terrain to draw Tarleton's overconfident British into a costly defeat. Despite this enormous loss, Cornwallis pursued Greene and Morgan deeper into the North Carolina wilderness, stretching the British supply line to Charleston dangerously thin.

How did the British respond to their loss in New York?

This revitalized force had its baptism by fire at the Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey in June 1778. General Henry Clinton, who had replaced Howe as British commander in North America, withdrew most British forces in the North to New York City to consolidate and reorganize. Along the way, Washington, with a combined force of Continentals and militia, hit Clinton's flank near Monmouth Courthouse. Just as General Charles Lee's assault on the British began to fall apart, Washington arrived to rally the men. Monmouth was a European-style battle, line army versus line army, in which Washington's army could not have engaged the year before. Darkness halted the action, and Clinton withdrew during the night. From this point, Clinton had to change the British strategic approach to the war. As the Americans and British warily eyed each other in New York, the British regrouped, intending to take advantage of loyalist support in the southern colonies.

What did Washington do next after he needed help to continue forward?

Washington huddled his meager force at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania during the winter of 1777-1778. Lacking adequate shelter, provisions, and clothing, the Continentals suffered tremendous hardship from freezing temperatures and harsh winter storms. Washington badgered Congress for help. Congress was doing all it could, but this was rarely enough. With Philadelphia occupied by the British, merely finding a place to meet in safety was often the priority. In the meantime, troops deserted, died, and talked of mutiny. But the men who stayed, and survived, became an army that the British would not recognize when compared to their own. Whereas the British soldier was often forced into service, the Continental soldier often volunteered for little more reason than peer pressure and a desire to not let down comrades in arms. Bounties and the promise of pay no doubt encouraged many to enlist as well. With the help of a former Prussian officer, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, Washington slowly turned the bedraggled men into soldiers. In Congress, Robert Morris used creative financing to better supply the army. From what should have been the demise of Washington's army grew a stronger, better- trained force, bonded in common cause and suffering.

What did George Washington do to make Cornwallis and Howe think differently in New York and New Jersey?

Washington needed a success, no matter how trivial, to boost morale in Congress, the army, and the 13 now-independent states. He found it at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776. Facing expiring enlistments, bitter cold, and a professional army of Hessian mercenaries brought into the fight by King George III, Washington hatched a daring if not reckless plan to attack the Hessian garrison at Trenton. Making a tedious and dangerous crossing of the Delaware River at night, Washington's men managed not so much to surprise the Hessians but rather to overwhelm them. It was a small but stunning victory for a victory-less army. It was the shot in the arm that Washington and his men so desperately needed. Washington followed this success in January 1777 with an attack on Princeton that ultimately forced Cornwallis and Howe to reconsider their strategy in New York and New Jersey.

How did Washington respond to these requests?

Washington sympathized with the officers' frustrations but did not support their threats against Congress. To Washington, civil-military relations were paramount to the survival of the young American nation. He had already made plans to return his commission to Congress and had ideas about the establishment of a permanent military structure to defend the security of the new nation. But such talk of mutiny and defiance of civilian authority could gravely taint not only Washington's reputation, which he indeed held most dear, but also that of the United States as a new country.

What did Washington have to do first?

Washington's first task was to go to Boston and take control of colonial forces. Militia enlistments were expiring, and many men simply returned home. Washington had to recruit a new army in the field and keep the British contained in Boston at the same time. Washington's first big break came in early 1776 when a force under the command of Henry Knox brought 50 cannon from recently captured Fort Ticonderoga—a Herculean task considering the snow-covered terrain of the 300 miles to Boston. Washington had the guns placed on Dorchester Heights, where the barrels looked down upon the city, putting the British in an untenable situation. The new British commander, Major General William Howe, decided to withdraw from Boston in March 1776 to the safe confines of Nova Scotia, where he planned his next move.

What did Washington do to help military officers and veterans feel better about their tribute?

When Washington got wind of a pending meeting where the discontented officers were to air their grievances and plan what they would do about Congress's failure to act, he called a preemptive meeting. In the officers' barracks in Newburgh, Washington reminded them of their service and obligation to their country. He appealed to their sense of duty and patriotism, then promised to ensure that their sacrifice would not go unrewarded by Congress. When pleading his case before them, Washington took from his pocket a letter suggesting that Congress would address their concerns. He began to read it but then stopped, putting on a pair of eyeglasses. His men had never seen him wear glasses. Washington told them he had not only grown gray in their service but that he was now growing blind. He left the building, leaving some officers in tears. They passed a resolution pledging their support of Congress. The so-called Newburgh Conspiracy had collapsed, affirming civilian control of the first national army in American history and setting the precedent of military noninterference in government affairs. Although Washington had prevented what would have been a disastrous movement, less than a month later Pennsylvania troops in the Continental Army marched against Congress, meeting in the Pennsylvania state house in Philadelphia, demanding discharge and back pay. Congress refused their demands and the crisis abated, but as Washington feared, such action fueled doubts that a republic could long survive a standing army.

What happened when the 1777 campaign season got underway?

When the 1777 campaign season got underway, Howe ordered the dashing and ambitious General John Burgoyne to attempt another push from Canada to split New England and New York. Burgoyne knew little of the American wilderness and insisted on a long and heavy supply train. His army of about 8,000 regulars and loyalists hacked their way through the thick forests, literally building a road as they advanced, sometimes covering only yards in a day. American Major General Horatio Gates, a former British army officer who had served with Braddock in the previous war, harassed Burgoyne with his small Continental force and large number of militia until finally baiting the British to attack strong American defensive positions around Saratoga in the fall of 1777. In a series of battles during September and October, Gates maintained the initiative. With supplies running out and no hope of reinforcement, Burgoyne had to surrender. The victory over the British at Saratoga became the turning point of the war for the American cause, as France considered the success a definite sign that the Americans might indeed have a chance of winning, and, thus, decided to support the Americans with money, arms, and ultimately troops.

What did Article 2 of the constitution state?

While Congress had the supreme power and authority to declare war in the new Constitution, Article 2 made the president the commander- in-chief of national military forces and gave him authority to commission officers with the consent of the upper house of Congress, the Senate. Authority for military affairs was shared, then, between Congress and the executive branch, both civilian bodies. Such power- sharing was designed to prevent despotic abuse of whatever national military power might be created.

What was the problem about raising an army?

While both Washington's and Hamilton's proposals made sense as a means to provide security for the new nation, convincing a Congress with little money and a people who held fast to a deeply held anti- standing army tradition to accept these ideas was another matter. Although Hamilton's report to Congress coincided with the Pennsylvania mutiny, Congress still approached these radical ideas with extreme caution if not hesitancy. Worse again for Hamilton and his committee was that under the Articles of Confederation, Congress could not raise an army during peacetime. Politically, too many in Congress continued to think regionally. They abhorred centralized government at the expense of state power and convinced themselves of plots by nationalists, ambitious military men, and others to use a national army to seize control of Congress. While many of Hamilton's proposals ultimately found their way into the nation's military establishment in the early nineteenth century, doing so just after the end of the War for Independence made Congress unenthusiastic about meddling with what they perceived as a sound military policy that had brought success in the war.

What cost the British crown 13 colonies?

While the Great War for Empire had left Great Britain the primary global imperial power, the cost of the war and of now defending a more enormous empire placed even higher demands on a nearly empty British treasury. To raise revenue, station British regulars permanently in the American colonies, and restrict colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, Parliament inadvertently sparked a revolution that would cost the British Crown 13 of its North American colonies.

How did Americans begin to turn the war in their favor?

With Gates in the south with virtually no army, Benedict Arnold plotting treason at West Point in the North, and Washington's army barely managing to keep Clinton entrenched in New York, prospects indeed looked bleak for the American cause. The situation, however, began to turn in the Americans' favor. Significant help from France finally arrived. The first French troops to join the fight landed in Newport, Rhode Island, in July 1778, under the command of the Comte de Rochambeau. Washington convinced Congress to relieve the incompetent Gates, replacing him with Nathaniel Greene, a courageous commander but one whose battlefield success came at considerable risk. In the south, loyalist support for the British eroded as Cornwallis either allowed or ignored the brutality of his troops against non- combatants. British troops pillaged, raped, and managed to alienate many among the nonaligned colonists, as well as some loyalists.

What did the men of Washington expect as the war ended?

With his charge from Congress accomplished, Washington sought nothing more than to retire from public life and return to his wife Martha and his beloved Mount Vernon. But as word came of the Treaty of Paris, Washington's officers were in the midst of what could have been a most shameful ending to a most honorable achievement. Having fought a long and costly war, Washington's men awaited promised wages from Congress for their service to the new nation. In 1780, Congress had passed legislation that promised officers of the Continental Army a pension of half pay for life that was consistent with pensions granted by European states to their armies. Impatient and prone to ambitious talk, Washington's officers anxiously awaited word at their winter camp in Newburgh, New York, that this promise would be carried out before Congress disbanded the army.

Describe the battle in New York between George Washington and Howe.

With his motley force of Continentals and militia, Washington set up to defend New York City by splitting his forces between Long Island and Brooklyn Heights. Howe coolly teased the rebels with the real threat of annihilation while offering amnesty for those who returned to the loyalist fold before the British launched the assault. In late August, Howe attacked and very nearly wiped out the Continentals on Long Island. Washington's forces on Brooklyn Heights barely escaped destruction by retreating to Manhattan. Howe may have allowed Washington to slip away in a fruitless effort to convince the Americans to give up the fight before the Continental Army was physically destroyed. Additional battles occurred in New York City, Forts Washington and Lee, and White Plains. Despite heavy losses due to combat, capture, and desertion, Washington managed to get a small portion of his original force out of New York and into New Jersey. He now had less than 3,000 men. It was, perhaps, the low point of the war for the Americans.

What did Congress think about establishing a military in the United States?

With independence won, many in Congress saw no need for a permanent military establishment. State militias could ably defend the United States against foreign enemies, as they had done in the past. Congress, however, seriously considered the problem and appointed a committee—chaired by one of Washington's staff officers, Alexander Hamilton of New York—to study the issue of a permanent standing army. Hamilton and other New Yorkers had earlier balked provisions in the Articles of Confederation that had governed the states since 1781 prohibiting individual states from creating permanent armies. With the British still occupying forts in predominantly indigenous lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, New York wanted to use its contingent of Continentals to relieve the British and keep watch over Native Americans and settlers along the frontier. Other states had similar concerns, and many in Congress came to accept that the westward growth of the new nation, combined with its unique security needs, required some sort of permanent military establishment.

Explain how Washington and his French allies attacked Cornwallis.

With siege equipment thoughtfully included in the French expeditionary arsenal, Washington and his French allies dug in and began pounding Cornwallis in late September. Washington had 6,000 Continentals and more than 3,000 militia, combined with de Rochambeau's 7,000 French, to Cornwallis's 8,000 men who were under siege at Yorktown. For three weeks, the Americans and French hammered away at Cornwallis, who now had no hope of rescue or resupply. He formally surrendered on October 19, 1781.

What other law cause the Boston massacre?

With tax revenue still far short of the amounts needed to relieve the debt and pay for British troops in America, Parliament tried again to tax the colonies through the so-called Townshend Duties. The colonists responded with nonimportation and boycotts of British goods. Outside the Boston customs house in 1770, British soldiers guarding the building squared off against an angry mob. Shots were fired, killing five Bostonians and wounding several others. Defended by the able John Adams, the British soldiers involved in the incident were mostly exonerated of any wrongdoing or malicious misconduct. This, however, did not stop the Sons of Liberty from turning this minor incident into the infamous Boston Massacre. Heightened tensions in Boston and severe losses for British businesses because of the nonimportation movement convinced Parliament to repeal the Townshend Duties in 1770.

How did Congress work to pay soldiers?

With the navy all but dissolved, Congress debated what to do with the army it had created back in 1775. To avoid more mutinies and disaffection among the officer corps, Robert Morris, a financial wizard, worked out a way to pay the troops as Congress slowly furloughed and then discharged them. By 1784, only a handful of soldiers remained, most at Continental Army headquarters at West Point along the Hudson River in New York. The Continental Army that had won American independence ceased to exist. Although its tradition remained steadfast as an organization, the Continental Army was only a temporary structure created to fight the British in a war. It was never meant to be a permanent fixture of American security.

Who was the General of the new Continental army in the south?

Without Washington's consent, Congress authorized a new Continental army in the south, giving it to the hero of Saratoga, General Horatio Gates. Gates was arrogant, overconfident, and careless, and quickly met with disaster. In August 1780, Gates's 1,500 Continentals and several hundred militiamen collided with Cornwallis at Camden, South Carolina. Entrusting his left flank to the undisciplined militia, Gates kept his trained Continentals together on the right. Recognizing this unwise division of force, Cornwallis hit the militia hard. They fled in panic, leaving Gates and his Continentals outnumbered and exposed. Gates and the regulars were all but destroyed.

How did women participate in the war?

Women were part of the war in a variety of ways. They wrote pamphlets, plays, and poems in favor of the revolution, worked as camp followers, spied, and sometimes fought. Mercy Otis Warren's pamphlets and plays were openly patriotic. Sentiments of an American Woman, by Esther De Berdt Reed, encouraged women to work together to boost the morale of American soldiers, leading to the establishment of a nationwide fundraising effort to provide soldiers with much-needed clothing and other necessities.

What happened when this attack occurred?

irst Saratoga, and then Yorktown—the British could not tolerate such losses. The British people were already divided on the war, and Parliament had been split over how to pursue the conflict after Burgoyne's surrender and French entry into the conflict. Lord North's ministry fell on March 20, 1782. Now, after Yorktown and still facing an increasingly stronger French enemy and determined rebel army, the British made the difficult decision to let the colonies in America go their separate way.