Chapter 3- The Social Self

Trait self-esteem

Life-long, stable sense of overall self-esteem

Self-handicapping

Making excuses about physical or mental abilities, or sabotaging one's own performance to prevent their failure from being blamed on their lack of ability (to preserve self-esteem)

True/false: Discrepancy from our ought-self causes anxiety

True

True/false: People with low self-esteem have worse immune systems

True

True/false: Reports of others who know us are as accurate as our own when it comes to anticipating our future actions

True

True/false: Self-monitoring scores drop as we get older, because we're more secure in our identity as we age

True

True/false: self-verification oftentimes trumps the need for self-enhancement

True

True/false: People with depression have more realistic views of self than more well-adjusted people

True (because they don't use self-enhancement methods, have unrealistically positive views of the future, and accept that they can't control certain factors in life)

True/false: if you're trying to assess your writing skills, you'll compare yourself to another college student, not a first grader or a best-selling author

True (mostly).

Strategic self-presentation

Trying to shape others' impressions of us to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval (ex: a defendant will victimize themselves to gain pity from a jury). This type of presentation is about trying to get others to see us in a specific way (dangerous, nice, etc).

Downward social comparisons in self-enhancement

We do this in domains that we DO consider relevant to our self-definition.

Sociometer theory

We have a primitive need for social connection and approval, so we use self-esteem as an indicator of how others perceive us. Sociometer is a built-in mechanism that enables us to detect acceptance and rejection from others and translate that into high or low self-esteem (low self-esteem would indicate one is having social difficulties and should work on improving)

Who knows us better-people who are close to us or ourselves? On: Internal traits

We know ourselves better when it comes to internal traits that can't be observed (ex: how optimistic we are; how anxious we are)

Reflected self-appraisals

belief about what others think about us. We interpret reactions we receive from others (ex: they laugh at your jokes, so we see ourselves as funny) and use those reactions to gain self-knowledge.

Self-Handicapping Strategies

a. Procrastination b. Self-sabotaging c. Excuses d. Sandbagging

Ideal self

who we think we should be based on values and aspirations

Ought self

who we think we should be because of various obligations and responsibilities

What are the self-serving construals we use to achieve self-enhancement?

1. Better than average effect 2. Self-affirmation theory 3. Basking in reflected glory 4. Downward social comparisons 5. Methods to deal when there's no one to downward-compare to

How do we learn about ourselves?

1. Introspection 2. From others

Why do gender self-concept differences exist?

1. Socialization agents: media portrays men as more "powerful" and women as more "nurturing". Parents tend to talk to girls more about sensitivity and emotions. 2. Evolution: men are more equipped both physically and psychologically to be in aggressive encounters, whereas women are more equipped to nurture the young

Discrepancy from our ought-self causes?

Feelings of anxiety, shame, and guilt

True/false: Collectivists score lower than individualists on Implicit Self-esteem Tests

False They get equally high scores

We change in different situations, and yet our sense of self is stable. In what ways?

1. Some characteristics are stable in every situation 2. The inconsistency of our behaviors in different situations is actually stable. Example: if you're shy in class, but outgoing around friends, those will both consistently be true in those varying situations 3. In unusual situations, you'll push past your overall, stable self-knowledge. Example: you might think you're lazy at your core, but in extreme situations you push past that

Aspects of downward social comparisons

1. Temporal comparisons: comparisons between out past and present selves to self-enhance, meaning we compare ourselves now to our past selves favorably. "I'm better now than I was in the past" 2. In the face of tragic life events, we affiliate with others in the same predicament who have adjusted well but compare ourselves to people worse off. Ex: cancer patients look for guidance from those who pushed through treatment strongly in the past, but compared themselves to people who were coping worse, and through that they felt better

Gender differences in self-concept

1. Women tend to self-define more interdependently than men do. Example: they are more attuned to situational cues, whereas men are more attuned to internal cues 2. Men prioritize their differences when describing the self-more

What are the problems with introspection?

A) People can't always explain the causes of their behaviors/people don't have access to subconscious mental processes, so they have to find alternative causes for their preferences/ behaviors. B) Introspection can impair self-knowledge. When self-assessing, people have a motivational bias to think highly of themselves, so they overestimate positives (their abilities, accuracy of their opinions, etc)

Two types of self-presentation

A) Strategic self-presentation B) Self-monitoring

People who are high self-monitors care more about: A) Self-presentation B) Self-verification

A. Which is why they modify their behavior more from setting to setting (social chameleons). Low self-monitors care about self-verification more and are less concerned with how socially acceptable they act (they are more consistent across the board in how they act)

Self-verification

Acting out of a desire to have others see us as we perceive ourselves (to confirm our self-concept through the eyes of others). Ex: people selectively remember feedback that confirms self-conceptions; when someone describes one as a quality that they don't think matches their personality, they overcompensate by acting the opposite. This is also true when the self-concept is negative- we want people to confirm our shortcomings. Ex: people with negative self-concept are more committed to partners who evaluate them unfavorably.

Self-esteem

An affect component of the self that refers to our positive and negative evaluations of ourselves. It impacts how we think, feel, and present selves. Fluctuates based on successes/failures, social experiences, and other experiences (how stable it is depends on the person, but generally consistent level throughout life)

How can one counteract self-regulation fatigue? A) Monetary incentives B) All answers are correct C) Being in a positive mood can counteract how exhausting exerting self-control is D) Person's theory about self-control-if they subscribe to the ego-depletion theory, they are more likely to succumb to it E) Increase glucose levels

B

Is there a causal connection between self-esteem and incomes later in life? A) No B) No, but people who have high self-esteem in specific fields do better in those fields C) Yes D) Yes, because seeking self-esteem leads people to avoid tasks that could end in failure

B

Spotlight effect

Belief that people are observing you more than they actually do

Self-schema

Beliefs about ourselves that guide how we process self-relevant info. Example: we're masculine or feminine; independent or dependent; liberal or conservative; introverted or extroverted.

Self-serving attributional bias

Blaming external factors for failures, while taking credit for our successes

True/false: Positive self-illusions are always adaptive and healthy

False (positive illusions can lead to self-defeating behavior: self-handicapping, denying problems one has, rely on illusion of control)

True/false: People with inflated views of themselves are rated more favorably

False (they're rated as condescending, hostile, defensive, etc.)

True/false: According to all researchers, we compare ourselves to others in states of uncertainty

False. Not all research supports this- some claims that we also compare ourselves to others when we do have objective ways to self-evaluate

True/false: People with high self-esteem exert less effort and still succeed in difficult tasks

False. People with high self-esteem succeed more because they exert more effort

Seeking self-esteem can have negative effects such as: A) Creating Anxiety B) Avoiding tasks that could end in failure C) Neglecting Others' Needs D) All answers are correct E) Lower Health because of Stress

D

What do we do when others outperform us in domains we consider relevant to our self-definition (no available inferior comparison)? A. Sabotage them or improve our performance, to minimize the gap B. Decrease sense of closeness to those who outperform you (easier to handle) C. Decrease relevance of that domain to your self-definition D. All answers are correct

D

Traits of low self-esteem

Depressed/pessimistic, give up easily (low confidence), enter self-defeating cycle, blame self, worse immune system

Aschematic-viewing

Don't regard yourself through a specific attribute

True/false: Discrepancy from our ought-self causes sadness

False

True/false: Downward social comparison doesn't have emotional benefits

False

If you deny yourself the ice cream you want, you may have trouble holding back anger later. What is this an example of?

Ego-Depletion Theory

What are the negative consequences of high self-esteem?

Egotism, reacting more negatively when self-esteem is threatened (ex: don't take negative feedback well)

Better than average effect

Especially in Western cultures, people tend to see themselves as better than others (use positive traits to self-describe, rate themselves higher than others do, selectively recall positive feedback over negative feedback, etc). People especially rate themselves as better than average when it comes to traits they think are important. We also tend to judge others based on how they act "on average", but judge ourselves based on how we act when we're at our best

Self-Sabotaging in Self-Handicapping (study)

Experiment: students were given either a really easy test or an impossible test. Before taking a second test, the subjects were asked if they wanted to take a performance improving drug or a performance impairing one. Those who took the hard test chose the latter option to handicap themselves and have an excuse for their potential future failure. This occurred more when an experimenter was present during the test (self-handicap is used to preserve esteem in eyes of others). Self-sabotaging objectively does increase chances of failure

True/false: Discrepancy from our ideal-self causes guilt

False

True/false: Discrepancy from our ideal-self causes shame

False

Procrastination in Self-Handicapping

If we procrastinate, it provides an excuse for a future failure that doesn't negatively reflect on our abilities

Distinctiveness in Western culture

In Western culture, individualism is considered important, so when asked, people define themselves through traits that make them different (ex: in group of 20 years old's, a 30-year-old would highlight his age). Ex: Chinese-Americans were asked questions about themselves. The group that was given the questions in English answered in a way that focused on personal traits, while those asked in Chinese answered in terms of group affiliations more

Basking in Reflected Glory

Increasing self-esteem by associating with others who are successful, because self-esteem is influenced by who we identify with. We do this in domains that we don't consider relevant to our self-definition. Ex: showing off connection to others who are successful. Finding in study that college students were more likely to wear school apparel the day after a big win, and the amount of apparel worn increased as the margin of victory increased. Also, that if one's team wins they're more likely to say, "we won", whereas if their team lost they'd likely say, "they lost".

Individualism/collectivism: positive qualities

Individualism: independence, self-reliance, assertiveness Collectivism: interdependence, cooperation, focus on group as priority

Individualism/collectivism: view of self (examples)

Individualism: person is unique and autonomous Collectivist: person is modest and responsible for others Ex1: "Who am I test": Westerners describe themselves in personal terms ("I am friendly"); collectivists define themselves through their relationships to others/ group roles ("I'm a good colleague") Ex2: when Canadians described a story when they were embarrassed, they told it from their own perspective, but Asians were more likely to tell the story as an observer of the event would.

Individualism/collectivism: strive for personal achievement

Individualism: take credit, blame others for failures, overestimate their contributions to group Collectivism: Underestimate their role in group, self-effacing when someone else in group fails (blame), modest

Two cultural self-concepts

Individualistic (independent self-construal) vs. Collectivist (interdependent self-construal)

How do collectivist and individuals score on self-esteem tests (how they present themselves to others)?

Individualists=high score. Collectivists=low score

How do collectivist and individuals describe self-esteem? Why?

Individualists=positively (culture focuses on importance of self-esteem/ praise) Collectivists=negatively or in a self-effacing way (culture focuses on skill development and improvement through critique)

Excuses in Self-Handicapping

Men are more likely to take drugs or not practice for task; women are more likely to express physical or stress symptoms

Self-enhancement

Motivation to view ourselves positively.

Who knows us better-people who are close to us or ourselves? On: External traits related to self-esteem

Others can know us better when it comes to observable traits that are related to our self-esteem because they're more objective (ex: how smart or rude we are)

Social comparison theory

People evaluate their own opinions/abilities by comparing themselves to others; the self is a "relative" social construct. People tend to describe themselves through traits that differentiate them from others in the immediate situation, meaning by changing one's surroundings you can change their spontaneous self-description

Self-affirmation theory

People maintain their self-esteem even after something threatens it by reaffirming a valued aspect of themselves that's unrelated to the threat. Ex: if you do badly on your math test, you'll remind yourself that you're really good at creative tasks. This tendency prevents us from using defense mechanisms against the threats to our self-esteem. If we self-affirm, we're less likely to partake in a self-serving attributional bias or to respond to threatened self-esteem by degrading a member of an outgroup

Hazel Markus's study on schemas

People with a self-schema in a particular domain (meaning that characteristic is very important to their self-definition) process information about that schema faster and find evidence for that self-schema faster. Ex: subjects high or low on the dependency schema defined themselves through related traits faster and generated more behaviors consistent with dependent/ independent faster (from their past actions)

Ought self-standards have a ____ focus (and what is it?)

Prevention Focus: a prevention focus causes us to self-regulate in order to avoid negative outcomes.

Self-regulation

Process by which we try to control our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to live a socially acceptable life (needed to achieve goal of reducing self-discrepancies). However, there's a constant conflict between our desires and needing self-control to achieve goals and values (ex: delaying gratification).

Ideal self-standards have a _____ focus (and what is it?)

Promotion Focus: a promotion focus causes us to self-regulate with the goal of obtaining positive outcomes.

Face

Public image of ourselves we want others to believe

Sandbagging in Self-Handicapping

Reducing performance pressure by downplaying one's abilities, publicly predict they'll fail, etc

Discrepancy from the ideal-self causes?

Sadness, frustration, and disappointment

Schematic-viewing

Seeing yourself through a specific schema (ex: your weight) will make you experience events through the lens of that schema and trigger thoughts of the self in that context (ex: going to a restaurant is viewed through your weight and triggers thoughts about yourself in the sense of your weight).

Two needs that drive our methods of self-evaluation

Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification

Ego-Depletion Theory

Self-control is a limited resource that is depleted the more it's used; like a muscle- as it's used it becomes tired until the resource is replenished. Doesn't need to be related to each other. The more self-control you exert, the less you can self-regulate in other tasks. Ex: study showed that dieters who had to resist a temptation were later less persistent on cognitive problems they were given (self-control exertion is mentally exhausting)

How can self-verification and self-enhancement contradict?

Self-enhancement impacts our emotional response to feedback. Self-verification impacts cognitive response to feedback. Ex: you can get negative feedback that you cognitively understand is correct, but still respond negatively to it

Self-discrepancy theory

Self-esteem is defined by how much we "match" in our view of self and how we want to view ourselves. Made up of A) Actual Self B) Ought Self C) Ideal Self. The higher the discrepancy between the actual self and the other two (our "self-guides"), the worse we feel. The more importantly we view the domain we are discrepant in, the greater the hit to self-esteem

Contingencies of self-worth

Self-esteem is dependent on successes and failures a person experiences in the domains they base their self-worth on. Example: for a studious person, self-esteem may be really dependent on how they're doing in school; for a model it may be based on how they look on a given day

State self-esteem

Self-evaluations that change as our momentary moods, experiences, and thoughts change. Ex: if you experience a temporary setback, your self-esteem will take a temporary hit. Can also change through development. Ex: adolescent boys' self-esteem rises, while for girls it goes down at that time in life

How we deal with the risk of potentially not living up to strategic self-presentation

Self-handicapping

How can we reduce self-discrepancies?

Self-regulation

Why are we so motivated to seek self-esteem?

Sociometer theory

Self-monitoring

Tendency to regulate one's behavior to adapt to the social situation at hand.

Self-Presentation

The process by which we try to shape what others think of us and what we think of ourselves. Can be done consciously or not, be an accurate presentation or unrealistic, intended for others or for ourselves. People are concerned with the image they present to others through public behavior. Seen through the spotlight effect and face.

Who knows us better-people who are close to us or ourselves? On: External traits

There's no self-other difference when it comes to external traits that are observable (ex: how quiet we are; how messy we are)

Self-concept

Total sum of beliefs one has about himself. Made up of self-schemas

Downward social comparisons

When self-esteem is at stake, we tend to defensively compare ourselves to others who are less successful, happy, or fortunate than us. This uplifts people's moods and improves outlook for the future

Upward social comparisons

When we want to improve in something, we ignore the self-esteem element and compare upwards. Ex: if you care about improving your grades, you'll compare yourself to someone doing better than you

Situationism

concept that our social self changes within different social contexts (ex: you might be rowdy with close friends, but shy around new people)

How we see ourselves in the brain

different regions are activated when thinking of our personal self-perception versus how we think others perceive us. For adolescents the perspective-taking regions are more activating when considering self-views (meaning, adolescents rely on reflected self-appraisals when judging themselves more, which means others' opinions of them are more important to them)

Looking-glass self

individuals develop their concept of self by imagining how they are perceived by others and incorporating those perceptions into our concept of self (how we think others perceive us, not how they actually do)

Socialization agents

others around us influence our beliefs, preferences, norms, values, etc. either directly or indirectly (telling us what's important versus modeling behavior). Ex: person's Judaism is really important to their sense of self because they were brought to shul, learned in Jewish school, etc.

Actual self

self-concept

Introspection

self-knowledge comes from reflecting on one's thoughts and feelings, which implies that we know ourselves better than anyone else can

Working self-concept

the subset of our self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a given context (the self-knowledge that's relevant in that specific situation)