Chapter 4: Leadership and the Manager

Why follow the manager?

-manager issues an order or directive, and the result is compliance -why do employees disaboy -actions are of compliance are described, which term provides the proper point of reference-power, authority, or influence Organization behavior: controlled behavior, that is directed toward goal attainment -authority structure made is created to ensure adherence to organizational norms, to suppress spontaneous or random behavior, and to induce purposeful behavior consistent with the aims of the organization

Work Assignment

Repetitive work and properly trained workers do not require constant or close supervision. New or complex assignments may require close supervision.

Related Terms

•Consent •Zone of indifference •Zone of acceptance •The psychological contract

Change and the Manager p. 95

manager must embrace the reality of constant change and accept and fulfill the role of change agent within the organization -addressing essential change and truly leading employees in its acceptance and implementation that the manager can be successful in the long term -denying can losing ground and go backward relative to technology and society as they race ahead

Leadership-faire leadership

the assumption is made that individuals are self-motivated, and employees receive little or no supervision. Employees determine their own goals and make their own decisions. The manager's contribution is minimal and he or she primarily acts as a consultant, and only when asked. The usual end result is disorganization and chaos because different employees proceed in different directions.

partcipative

the contribution of the group to the organizational effort is emphasized. Employees are involved in the decision making process, and are consulted concerning goals and objectives, work assignments, and problems. The manager facilitates the full use of the talents and abilities of the group members. This does not weaken the manager's formal authority because they retain the right to make the final decision. Involving the employees enhances the implementation of the decisions that have been made. Some managers use a pseudoparticipative method to give the employees the feeling that they are being consulted. However, employees eventually realize that their participation in the decision-making process is not real.

Bureaucratic

the leader tells the employees what to do and how to do it based almost exclusively on the institution's rules and regulations. Rules are strictly enforced and no departures or exceptions are permitted. There is little or no employee freedom.

Authentic Personal Leadership

•"Why should anyone be led by you?" •Value-added characteristics - Engaged, conscious living - Gracious interpersonal relationships - Embodiment of values -The good manager is able to shift from one style of leadership to another depending on the work group and situational factors.

Objectives

•Address the role of the manager as a principal change agent. •Differentiate among the terms power, influence, and authority. •Recognize the importance of authority for organizational stability. •Identify the sources of power, influence, and authority. •Relate the sources of power, influence, and authority to the organizational position of the line manager. •Recognize the limits placed on the use of power and authority in organizational settings. •Recognize the importance of delegation of authority. •Explore the nature of leadership and the reasons why individuals seek leadership positions. •Identify the styles of leadership, their characteristics, and the circumstances under which they are applied.

Leadership Styles

•Autocratic •Bureaucratic •Participative •Laissez-faire •Paternalistic

Supporting the unit supervisor

•Formal, periodic meetings focusing on work flow •Formal meetings focusing on supervisory skills •Mentoring and career path development •Informal daily interaction as needed •Combination of formal and informal interaction ("The Huddle")

Professional Practitioner-Manager's Authority

•Hired for professional training and specialized skills •Placed into a position having formal authority •Enhanced by personality traits: manager as leader •Enhanced by participative style, leading to wide zone of acceptance

Do's and Don'ts of Delegation

•Know when to delegate (e.g., routine tasks). •Know when NOT to delegate (e.g., hiring and firing). •Avoid countermanding supervisors. •Set up a balanced system of availability and support.

Formal Authority p. 98

•Legitimate power •The right to issue orders and to direct action •The right to employ resources, make commitments, exercise control -right given to a manger to employ resources, make commitments and exercise control -manager is entitle, empowered, and authorized to act; thus the manager ensures a responsibility to act -expressed by direct command or instruction, or by request or suggestions -coordination is established in the organization -mandate is delineate, commincated, and reinforce including organizational charts, job descriptions, procedure manuals, and work rules -differs from influence in that authority is clearly vested in the formal chain of common -individuals are given a specific grant of authority as a result of organizational position complemented and supplemented by power on the one hand and influence on the other hand -realm of formal authority to exact compliance by the threat of firing a person for failure to comply Book: Authority may be described as legitimate power. It is the right to issue orders, to direct action, and to command or exact compliance. It is the right given to a manager to employ resources, make commitments, and exercise control. By a grant of formal authority, the manager is entitled, empowered, and authorized to act; thus, the manager incurs a responsibility to act. Authority may be expressed by direct command or instruction or, more commonly, by request or suggestion. Through the delegation of authority, coordination is established in the organization. The authority mandate is delineated, communicated, and reinforced in several ways, including organizational charts, job descriptions, procedure manuals, and work rules. Although the exercise of authority in many situations tends to be similar to transactions of influence, authority differs from influence in that authority is clearly vested in the formal chain of command. Individuals are given specific grants of authority as a result of organizational position. Power and influence may be exercised by an individual authority holder, but they may also be exercised by individuals who do not have specific grants of authority. Authority is both complemented and supplemented by power on the one hand and influence on the other hand. It is within the realm of formal authority to exact compliance by the threat of firing a person for failure to comply; however, this may be such a rare occurrence in an organization that such a threat is really an application of power more than an exercise of authority. However, formal aspects of authority may be so well developed that the major transactions remain at the level of influence, with the influence based largely on the holding of formal office. The infrequent use of formal authoritative directives to evoke compliance may indicate organizational health; that is, people know what to do and perform willingly.

Restrictions on Use of Authority

•Organizational position •Legal and contractual mandates •Social limitations •Physical limits •Technological constraints •Economic constraints •Zone of acceptance

The Concept of Influence p. 98

•Similar to power: seeks compliance •Differs from power: does not use force in which compliance is evoked •Voluntary acceptance and compliance •Seeks consensus and agreement •Relies on persuasion -accepted voluntarily -not only compliance but also consensus and agreement are sought; persuasion rather than latent or overt force is the major factor in influence -supplement power, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish latent power from influence in a given situation Book: Like power, influence is the capacity to produce effects on others or obtain compliance from others, but it differs from power in the manner in which compliance is evoked. Power is coercive, but influence is accepted voluntarily. Influence is the capacity to obtain compliance without relying on formal actions, rules, or force. In relationships governed by influence, not only compliance but also consensus and agreement are sought; persuasion rather than latent or overt force is the major factor in influence. Influence supplements power, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish latent power from influence in a given situation. Does the individual comply because of a relationship of influence or because of the latent power factor? Together, power and influence supplement formal authority.

Functions of a Leader

•Take calculated risks •Be the catalytic agent for change •Represent the group •Absorb the group's frustration and hostility •Embody the values of the organization

Aspects of Leadership

•The ability to get things done through people •The ability to organize tasks and make things happen •The ability to make the critical decisions •The ability to achieve objectives by coordinating, motivating, and directing the work group

Patterns of Formal Organization

Some people engender admiration from others to such an extent that they gain power to influence others. This is know as charismatic power, and belongs to only a select few people. These people possess at the minimum some exceptional qualities that set them apart. The organizations that form around these leaders tend to lack formal role structures. However, the organizations survival is linked to the charismatic authority of the individuals, and eventually the organization must take on some formalized authority pattern. It may evolve into a traditional system of authority or it may develop into a rational-legal system of authority. In traditionalism, a pattern of succession is developed so that it is known to whom the leadership will be transferred. This leads to a system of roles and formal authority. Rational-legal authority is based on formal organization, which derive legitimacy from an overall social and legal system. Individual accept authority within the formal organizational structure because the rights and duties of members of the organization are consistent with the larger society. The system of roles and authority is constructed to enable the organizations to survive and move toward its formal goal and remain stable. Authority is based in the organizational position, structure and hierarchy, not in any individual or personality.

Acceptance or Consent of Authority

Subordinates may simply accept authority. They may accept authority without conscious questioning, an area known as the zone of indifference. They accept authority in part because it is consistent with the overall organizational framework. Another term used is the zone of acceptance, which refers to an area established by subordinates within which they are willing to accept the decisions made for them by their superior. The rule of anticipated reactions states that employees seek to act in a manner acceptable to the superior because the authority system is so well developed in the organization. Compliance with authority is somehow rewarding, and the workers expect the authority holders to honor the restriction on their grant of authority and refrain from taking advantage of the workers.

Sources of Power, Influence, and Authority

The manager's organizational relationships vary along the continuum of power, influence, and authority. The emphasis among these three varies at different times and in different situations. The wider the base of authority a manager has, the less they need to rely on the formal grant of authority related to their position and power. There are several potential sources of authority. •Acceptance or consent •Patterns of formal organization •Cultural expectations •Technical competence and expertise •Characteristics of authority holders

Personality and Ability of the Manager

The opinions and suggestions of the employees must be treated with respect, and employee participation must be sincerely encouraged.

Attitude of the Employees toward the manager

Managers must be accepted by the group in order to lead or influence behavior. Employees give the manager authority only if they believe that the goals and objectives of the managers are consistent with their own personal and professional interests

Cultural Expectation

are based on the assumption that individuals in a society are culturally induced to accept authority. The use of authority is based on societal norms as well as corporate law, state and federal, law and regulations. General deference to authority is learned as part of the socialization process beginning in childhood. Social roles and sanctions are accepted and reinforced in adult life, and the role of employee carries with it the notion that insubordination is not generally condoned.

Paternalistic

employees are treated like children, and employees are told what to do but in a nice way. It is the manager's belief that the employees do not know what is good for them or how to make decisions for themselves. The employees become very dependent on the manager.

Influence

is also a means to obtain compliance from others, but unlike power, influence is accepted voluntarily. With influence consensus and agreement are also sought. Persuasion rather than subtle or overt force is used. It can be difficult to separate power from influence.

The Importance of Authority

-refuses to accept the orders of a superior = negative consequences for the attainment of organizational goals -superior can accept the insubordination, withdraw the older, and call on others to carry out the directive -further weaker authority because superior would most likely be perceived as lacking the subtle blend of power and authority needed to exact compliance may on a predictable basis -chain reaction of insubordination could occur -other workers are asked to carry out a directive that has been refused by one worker, resentment could build up and produce negative consequences -if order is withdrawn completely, or course, the work will not be accomplished -manager decides to enforce compliance may suspend or fire the worker but the superior still must find a worker to carry out the directive -chain reaction of insubordination, it may become impractical to suspend or fire the entire wor force -authority to one of power -manager must identify and widen their bases of authority to help ensure a stable work climate

Factors that Restrict the Use of Authority

1. Organizational position: The delegation of authority is consistent with the position held in the organization. The individual has no legitimate authority beyond that. 2. Legal and contractual mandates: Authority is limited by federal, state and local laws and regulations relating to safety, work hours, licensure, and scope of practice. 3. Social limitations: The social codes and values of the overall society also place limits on the behavior of individuals, and authority holders are expected to act within the value system of society. 4. Physical limits: An authority holder cannot force a person to do something that is beyond their physical capabilities or go beyond the limits of the physical environment. 5. Technological constraints: The limitations of the state of the art must be considered. 6. Economic constraints: The lack of resources provides limits. 7. Zone of acceptance of organization members: Authority and power have limits, especially in the presence of a strong employee group. Employees may also resist authority in subtle ways.

leadership (notes)

Creating a complete list of qualities or characteristics of leaders is difficult in that it is always possible to find supposedly successful leaders who are lacking many or all of these qualities or characteristics. Ultimately there is but one characteristic or condition that describes a successful leader and that is the acceptance of the followers. If the followers willingly accept a particular leadership, that leader is "successful" as such. A leader is someone who can organize tasks and make things happen, and inspire goal-directed behavior that is consistent and efficient. There is no set standard for leadership behavior. Individuals must match their own characteristics to the needs of the organization. The personal characteristic of leaders are a strong self-image, a vision of the future, a firm believe in the goals of the organization, the ability to influence the behavior of subordinates, and the ability to relate to and influence individuals in equal or superior positions of authority. Leadership exist informally and formally. Individuals who do not hold formal, hierarchical office may be leaders in some settings. Managers are formal leaders in that their role is to coordinate, motivate, and direct work groups. Leaders must make critical decisions and have a systems perspective. They must inspire confidence through emotional and knowledge ties with the followers. In formal organizations, the leader must also represent the group and carry out important functions on behalf of the group.

Personality and Ability of the Employee

Employees who are not self-starters react best to close supervision. Employees who can take on new and important responsibilities on their own react best to participative leadership. The occupational makeup of a department can also be a factor. Professional and highly skilled employees may function best with employee-centered participative leadership. Unskilled employees may produce better results with the autocratic style.

Technical Competence and Expertise

can also be a source of authority through functional authority, the law of the situation, and the authority of facts. Functional authority is the limited right of employees or departments to exercise authority over specified activities for which they are responsible. It is given to the employee or department because they have specialized knowledge and technical competence. The law of the situation may also dictate who should have authority. The individual who has the most knowledge and competence to make the necessary decision and issue the order in a particular situation has the authority to do so. The staff assistant or key employee may have as much authority in a particular situation as the holder of hierarchical office. The authority of facts states that individuals exercise authority and leadership because of their expert knowledge. The one with the knowledge demanded by the situation tends to exercise effective authority. Again, in these situations authority is based on technical competence and knowledge of individuals in the organization rather than the formal offices held.

Leadership Pt. 2

can also be viewed on a continuum from highly boss-centered to highly group centered. The relationship between manager and employee ranges from completely autocratic, in which there is no employee participation in decision making, to completely democratic in which the employees participate in all phases of the decision making process. The manager's relationship with the employees influences morale, job satisfaction, and work output. Employee satisfaction is positively associated with the degree to which employees are permitted to participate in the decision-making process. However, poor supervision causes dissatisfaction, high turnover rates, and low morale. No one style of leadership fits all situations. Factors that influence the leadership style for a given situation include:

Autocratic

characterized by close supervision. Clear and direct directions are given to employees telling them what is to be done and how. Employees do not participate in the decision making process. Autocratic managers use their authority as their principle, or only, method of getting work done. This style usually does not work in the long run, and is the least effective and desirable method for motivating employees.

formal authority

comes from position in the organizational hierarchy. One's formal authority is embodied in the position, usually reflected in one's job description. It is the right given to a manager to use resources, make commitments, and exercise control. The manager is entitled, empowered and authorized to act, and has a responsibility to act. This is reinforced in organizational charts, job descriptions, procedure manuals, and work rules. Authority in this case may be thought of as legitimate power. This authority may be expressed by direct command or instruction, or more commonly, by suggestion. The delegation of authority helps coordinate the organization. Formal authority may exist by itself, or it may be augmented or supplemented by authority derived from informal sources (personality, knowledge, expertise, etc.).

Manager must

delegate authority to specific workers under his or her jurisdiction since it is not possible for the manager to carry out every task. Every worker received delegated authority to proceed on a day-to-day basis. The manager sets up parameters through policies and procedures, work rules, codes of behavior, and training sessions. The manager also selects an appropriate style of leadership and communication to create an atmosphere in which workers accept responsibility for their part in meeting the organizational goals. Delegating does not come easy for all managers. The manager may fear that the employee will not perform to a high standard and this will reflect poorly on the manager. The manager may feel they can do the job better and faster themselves. They may also miss the hands on aspect of the work. However, delegation increases the zone of acceptance on the part of the employees, and failure to delegate may demoralize employees. Also, without delegation the manager must remain constantly present to authorize every action.

The Concept of Power p. 97

•The ability to obtain compliance by means of coercion •The ability to have one's own will carried out despite resistance •Force; naked strength •Does not seek consensus or agreement -mental hold over another -aimed at encouraging compliance but it does not seek consensus or agreement as a condition of that compliance -power is rational -narrow that person's range of choice and obtain compliance -implied threat to apply sanctions -formal authority older: the person who has the official title, organizational position, and grant of authority may or may not have power in addition to this formal grant of authority -a worker with specific technical knowledge can withhold key information from a manager or develop a relationship that is personally favorable -when individual can supply something that a person values and cannot obtain elsewhere in an acceptable manner or when the individual can deprive on of something valued, then there is a power relationship -this implicit or explicit power relationship may or may not be perceive by one or both parties

Importance of Delegation

•The manager cannot do everything! •Delegating leads to increased zone of acceptance and cooperation. •Workers who are in contact with clients can take effective action without delay. •Manager is free to attend to other management duties.

Influences on Leadership style

•Work assignment •Employee's personality and ability •Employee's attitude toward manager •Manager's personality and ability