Chapter 5

social networks

Composed of individuals with whom we have interpersonal relationships and interact with on a regular basis.

explicit attitudes

Consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report.

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that evokes a positive or negative response without substantial learning.

selective avoidance

A tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes. Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion.

elaboration-likelihood model (ELM)

A theory suggesting that persuasion can occur in either of two distinct ways, differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration the message receives.

subliminal conditioning

Classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals' threshold of conscious awareness.

persuasion

Efforts to change others' attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages.

attitude

Evaluation of various aspects of the social world.

reference groups

Groups of people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value.

habit

Repeatedly performing a specific behavior so responses become relatively automatic whenever that situation is encountered.

social learning

The process through which we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people.

ego-depletion

When our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of prior expenditures of limited resources.

pluralistic ignorance

When we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than us.

observational learning

A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.

classical conditioning

A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus. In a sense, one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation or occurrence of the other.

instrumental conditioning

A basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or which permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened.

theory of planned behavior

An extension of the theory of reasoned action, suggesting that in addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior.

cognitive dissonance

An internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior.

fear appeals

Attempting to change people's behaviors by use of a message that induces fear.

central route to persuasion

Attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive messages.

self-regulation

Limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions.

social comparison

The process through which we compare ourselves to others to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct.

conditioned stimulus

The stimulus that comes to stand for or signal a prior unconditioned stimulus.

attitude-to-behavior process model

A model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individual's definition of the present situation. This definition, in turn, influences overt behavior.

implementation plan

A plan for how to implement our intentions to carry out some action.

theory of reasoned action

A theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior.

forewarning

Advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion. Forewarning often increases resistance to the persuasion that follows.

peripheral route to persuasion

Attitude change that occurs in response to peripheral persuasion cues, which is often based on information concerning the expertise or status of would-be persuaders.

mere exposure

By having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes toward an object can be formed.

reactance

Negative reactions to threats to one's personal freedom. Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce negative attitude change or opposite to what was intended.

systematic processing

Processing of information in a persuasive message that involves careful consideration of message content and ideas.

heuristic processing

Processing of information in a persuasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts.

hypocrisy

Publicly advocating some attitudes or behavior and then acting in a way that is inconsistent with these attitudes or behavior.

less-leads-to-more effect

The fact that offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counterattitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance, and so more attitude change, than offering them larger rewards.

illusion of truth effect

The mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes.

implicit attitudes

Unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses.