Chapter 5: Adaptations to Anaerobic Training Programs
Performance improvements of motor performance following anaerobic exercise
-Improved running economy -Improved vertical jump -Improved sprint speed
Theoretical EIMD effect on muscle growth
EIMD influences structural changes by affecting gene expression to strengthen muscle tissue and protect it from further damage.
Rate-pressure product
Heart Rate * Systolic Blood Pressure Measures myocardial work
Characteristics of anaerobic training
High-intensity, intermittent
How do architectural changes in the muscle have a positive effect on force production?
The manner in which force is transmitted to the tendons and bones changes force production rates
Osteoblasts
manufacture and secrete proteins (usually collagen) that are deposited in the spaces between bone cells to increase strength.
Performance improvements of flexibility following anaerobic exercise
-Improved flexibility when paired with proper stretching routine
Effects of anaerobic training on cardiovascular system (4)
-Higher heart rate -Higher stroke volume -Higher cardiac output -Higher blood pressure
What are specific changes in a tendon that contribute to its increase in size and strength?
-An increase in collagen fibril diameter -A greater number of covalent cross-links within the hypertrophied fiber. -An increase in the number of collagen fibrils -An increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils.
Performance improvements of Local Muscular endurance following anaerobic exercise
-Enhanced muscular endurance -Improved oxidative and buffering capacity -Fiber type transitions from Type IIX to Type IIb -Increases in mitochondrial and capillary numbers -Increases in buffering capacity -Increased resistance to fatigue -Increased metabolic enzyme activity
Performance improvements of body composition following anaerobic exercise
-Increase in fat-free mass -Reduced body fat -Increase in lean tissue mass -Increase in daily metabolic rate -Increase in energy expenditure during exercise
Performance improvements of aerobic capacity following anaerobic exercise
-Increases in VO2 max in untrained people -No significant increase in VO2 max in trained people -Circuit training/high volume and short rest programs have been shown to improve VO2 max
5 questions to ask when determining whether an athlete is experiencing OTS
-Is the athlete experiencing symptoms of OTS -Are the athletes assessment tests and abnormally poor? -Are there errors in the program design? -Are there other confounding factors? -Does the athlete have any common exclusion criteria? (If answer is no then OTS possible)
Where can connective tissues increase strength and load-bearing capacity?
-Junctions between the tendon and bone surface -Within the body of the tendon or ligament -In the network of fascia within skeletal muscle
Performance improvements of Muscular Strength following anaerobic exercise
-Mean strength has increased -Positive shift in muscle fiber type recruitment from IIX to IIa -Higher-order motor units are recruited earlier. - Greater fatigue resistance at similar absolute force output.
Psychological factors in overtraining
-Mood disturbances and psychological symptoms
Performance improvements of Power following anaerobic exercise
-Peak power in jump squat improves -Peak power in squat and power clean increases -Peak power power in ballistic bench press throw increases
Cartilage functions
-Smooth joint articulating surface -Act as a shock absorber for forces directed through the joint -Aid in attachment of connective tissue to the skeleton
Detraining
-Term used to describe decrease in performance and loss of physiological adaptations following cessation of anaerobic training or reduction in frequency, volume, intensity.
Hypertrophy occurs as a result of what?
Accumulation of contractile proteins within the myofibril (myosin/actin), an increase in the number of myofibrils, a proportionate increase in structural proteins.
3 Characteristics of hypertrophic training
1. Heavy Loads 2. Eccentric Muscle actions 3. Moderate to high training volumes
How does muscle recruitment/neuron firing rate change as a result of heavy resistance training (4 ways)?
1. Increase in muscle fiber recruitment 2. Increased neuron firing rate 3. Improved synchronization of neural discharge (coordination of multiple muscles working together) 4. A combination of all 4 of these
Protein synthesis process
1. Water uptake 2. Noncontractile protein synthesis 3. Contractile protein synthesis
How long does the glycolytic system work and how long is needed for recovery?
10-60 seconds, 20-60 seconds
Overtraining
Accumulation of training stress resulting in long-term decrements in performance with or without associated physiological or psychological signs and symptoms of maladaptation. Recovery can take weeks to months
Increases in blood flow during anaerobic training is dependent on what three main factors?
A) Intensity of resistance B) Length of time of effort (number of repetitions) C) Size of muscle mass activated
Cartilage (has/does not have) its own blood supply.
Does not have
Bone loading is especially important in what two life phases?
Adolescence and early adulthood
High rep, low resistance exercise is similar to what other type of exercise?
Aerobic exercise
Which hormone pathway is particularly important in hypertrophy?
Akt/mTOR pathway regulates adaptations in response to resistance training
In heavy (maximal) resistance training (all/only Type II) muscle fibers are recruited.
All
What energy system does anaerobic training use? Why?
Anaerobic alactic (phosphagen, creatine-phosphate) system and anaerobic lactic (glycolytic) system. ATP regeneration is needed at a higher rate than what the aerobic system can provide.
Bilateral Deficit
Apparent primarily in untrained individuals. Force produced with both limbs contracting together is lower than the sum of the forces they produce when contracting unilaterally.
Bone adaptation occurs differently in the __________ and _______________ skeleton.
Axial; appendicular
Stress fractures
Bone micro-fractures due to fatigue
Bone matrix
Bone protein arrangement
Magnitude of increased myogenesis depends on what factors
Carbohydrate/protein intake, amino acid availability, nutrient intake timing, mechanical stress of the workout, muscle cell hydration levels, anabolic hormonal and subsequent receptor response.
Hyaline Cartilage
Cartilage on the articulating surfaces of bones
Primary structural component of all connective tissue is
Collagen
Cortical bone
Compact
How do cortical and trabecular bone work together?
Cortical bone is dense and forms a compact outer shell around the trabecular bone.
Osteoporosis
Disease in which BMD and bone mass is reduced to critically low levels.
Resting hormone concentrations (do/do not) change drastically over time.
Do not
Elastin
Elastic fibers needed in a ligament to allow normal joint motion
Overreaching (functional overreaching)
Excessive training leading to short-term decrements in performance Recovery can take a few days or weeks
EIMD
Exercise induced muscle damage
New myofilaments in hypertrophy are added to what layers of the myofibrils?
External
Osteogenic stimuli
Factors that stimulate new bone formation
Heavy load resistance training can benefit the cardiovascular system in the same way as high repetition, light load training (True/False)
False, Heavy load resistance training has different effects than light resistance, high rep training.
Muscles can change from Type I>Type II and vice versa. (True/False)
False, muscles can change from subtypes within their type. Ex. Type IIx>Type IIxa
Symptoms of overtraining are the same across all sports (true/false)
False. Anaerobic activities result in different symptoms than aerobic-endurance activities.
Procollagen is synthesized and secreted by
Fibroblasts
Smaller muscles rely on increases in _________ ______ to enhance force production whereas larger muscles rely on enhancing _________ ______.
Firing Rate; Fiber Recruitment
Ventilatory responses to anaerobic exercise include
For max effort work -Increased tidal volume -Increased breathing frequency For below max effort work -Decreased breathing frequency -Increased tidal volume
Motor unit
Functional unit of neuromuscular system
What chronic adaptations occur in response to acute cardiovascular stimulation of anaerobic exercise?
General reduction in cardiovascular response -Reduced increase in heart rate -Reduced increase in blood pressure
Muscle fascicle length is (greater/shorter) in trained athletes.
Greater
IGF-1 acts as a hormonal messenger for what other growth-promoting hormone?
Growth hormone
Myotatic Reflex
Harnessing involuntary elastic properties of the muscle and connective tissue and acts to increase force production without additional energy requirement.
Where are neural adaptations of anaerobic training first reflected?
In the spinal cord along descending corticospinal tracts.
Describe what happens in the body that produces neural adaptations
Increased agonist muscle recruitment Improved neuron firing rates Improved synchronization in neural discharge timing in high-intensity muscular contractions Decreased inhibitory mechanisms
Tendon stiffness (increases/decreases) as a result of resistance training
Increases
What does chronic resistance training do to cardiac size?
Increases in ventricular wall thickness
Neuromuscular Junction
Interface between nerve and skeletal muscle fibers. Another site for neural adaptation to occur.
Once a plateau in hypertrophy accommodation is reached, what should a strength coach do to maintain gains, and what happens neurologically?
Introduce variation or new progressive overload to begin neural adaptation over again and repeat this cycle.
How is power development affected by concurrent aerobic and anaerobic resistance exercise?
It is negatively affected more than strength
Who conducted the study comparing the effects of concurrent heavy resistance training and aerobic training?
Kraemer et. al
As muscle size increases, (more/less) neural activation is required to lift a given load.
Less
How long does the phosphagen system work at max effort and how long does full recovery take?
Less than 10 seconds, 5-7 mins
5 other important muscular adaptations
Myofibrillar volume Cytoplasmic density Sarcoplasmic reticulum T-tubule density Sodium-potassium ATPase activity
Inactivity or immobilization results in a (gain/loss) in BMD
Loss
Are low-recruitment threshold fiber types or high-recruitment threshold fiber types activated first?
Low threshold fibers are activated first
Positive changes in the reflex response of the neuromuscular system enhance what two things?
Magnitude and rate of force development
Components of mechanical load that stimulate bone growth are...
Magnitude of load (intensity) Rate of loading (speed) Direction of the forces Volume of loading (number of reps) Variation
High intensity, volume, or frequency aerobic endurance training (may/may not) interfere with strength and power gains
May
Describe changes in the NMJ as a result of anaerobic training.
Morphological changes in size and shape of NMJ that are conducive to enhanced neural transmission capabilities.
The Size Principle states...
Motor units are recruited in an ascending order according to their recruitment thresholds and firing rates. The size principle describes the order that motor units are recruited and decruited. Motor units high in the recruitment order are used for high force, speed and power production. They control more muscle fibers and are usually type I.
Myogenisis
Muscle protein synthesis and subsequent growth
Pennation angle
Muscle shape that attaches obliquely to the tendon. The angle affects force production capabilities as well as ROM.
Which has a faster metabolism, muscle tissue or tendons? Why?
Muscle tissue b/c they are more vascularity and circulation.
What performance adaptations occur as a result of anaerobic training?
Muscular strength, power, hypertrophy, muscular endurance, motor skills, coordination.
What types of physiological adaptations occur as a result of anaerobic training?
Nervous system Muscular Connective tissue Endocrine system Cardiovascular system
What occurs first neural adaptation or structural changes in skeletal muscle?
Neural adaptation
Does heavy resistance training enhance resting cardiac function?
No
Parasympathetic OTS
OTS including increased parasympathetic activity at rest
Sympathetic OTS
OTS including increased sympathetic activity at rest. Usually develops prior to parasympathetic syndrome.
Nonfunctional overreaching
Overreaching without adequate recovery that develops into overtraining
Intensity-related overtraining
Overtraining due to excessive load/intensity. No alteration of resting hormone concentrations
Volume-related overtraining
Overtraining with excessive reps. Usually results in cortisol increases and decreases in resting luteinizing hormone and total/free testosterone concentrations.
Microfibril
Parallel arrangement of filaments
How do hormone receptors change as a result of resistance training?
Primarily, Androgen receptors are up-regulated (more responsive to stimulus) within the first 48-72 hours.
The intent to produce maximal levels of muscular force and power causes motor cortex activity to increase. How does CNS adapt to accommodate the new movement/effort?
Primary cortex activity is elevated in attempts to support new need for higher levels of neuromuscular function.
____________ ___________ is ideal for loading bone strength over time.
Progressive overload
Overtraining Syndrome (OTS)
Prolonged maladaptation of the athlete as well as several biological, neurochemical, and hormonal regulation systems. AKA burnout, overfatigue, etc.
Bone mineral density
Quantity of mineral deposited in a given area of the bone
Ventilatory Equivalent
Ratio of air ventilated to oxygen used by tissues (Ve/VO2)
Electromyography
Research tool used to examine the magnitude of neural activation within skeletal muscle
Too much antagonist activity against an agonist movement creates ______________ to max force production.
Resistance
What are 4 anaerobic training modalities?
Resistance Training Plyometric training Speed/ Agility Training Interval Training
Cross-education
Showed by EMG studies that unilateral restance training produces increased strength and neural activity in the contralateral resting muscle.
Bilateral Facilitation effect
Shown in trained or stronger individuals where an increase in voluntary activation of the agonist muscle groups occurs.
Trabecular bone
Spongy bone
Cross-linking
Strong chemical bonds that form between adjacent collagen molecules throughout the collagen bundles, together longitudinally.
Hyperplasia
Term given to describe an increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting in response to high-intensity resistance training. Still under study, not confirmed as ideal in humans.
Hypertrophy
Term given to the enlargement of muscle fiber cross-sectional area following training. Positive relationship between hypertrophy and muscular strength expression.
Chronic changes in the acute hormonal response to long term resistance training mirrors what other improvements?
The improvements in ability to exert greater levels of muscular force
What is the primary stimulus for tendons, ligaments and fascia?
The insult and damage from mechanical forces during high intensity exercise.
What happens to fast-twitch muscle fibers as a result of anaerobic training?
Their recruitment level is increased/elevated to support higher levels of force expression.
Minimal essential strain
Threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation by osteoblasts migrating to the stressed region. Strain on bone is measured by force per unit area of bone.
Fibrous cartilage
Tough form of cartilage found in the intervertebral disks of the spine and at the junctions where tendons attach to the bone.
Which bone type responds to stimuli faster?
Trabecular because it is softer
5 stages of overtraining
Training overload Acute fatigue Functional overreaching Nonfunctional overreaching Overtraining syndrome
Correctly planned overworking and a subsequent tapering phase creating supercompensation in performance is an example of a situation where overreaching is okay. (True/False)
True
Significant hypertrophy is only possible when high-threshold motor units are activated (True/False)
True
Structural changes of muscle hypertrophy after ~10 weeks contribute to strength and power gains more than neural adaptations. (True/False)
True
Low-recruitment threshold fibers are Type __.
Type I
High-recruitment fibers are Type __.
Type II
Which fiber type usually manifest greater increases in size?
Type II
Heavy resistance training recruits more of which fiber type than high-intensity aerobic endurance interval training?
Type IIx
The muscle fiber subtype continuum is organized from the least oxidative to the most oxidative type. Show the continuum.
Type IIx> IIax> IIa> IIac> IIc >?> Ic>I
General symptoms of OTS
Unexplained underperformance Persistent fatigue Increased sense of effort during training Disordered sleep patters Loss of appetite
Neural adaptations typically are greater in (trained/untrained) athletes.
Untrained
Selective Recruitment
When an athlete is able to inhibit lower-threshold motor units and activate higher-threshold motor units first. An exception to the Size Principle. Occurs when force production is required at very high speeds for muscular power expression.
`Forces created by muscular action on connective tissue can be...
`bending, compressive, or torsional.
Ideal bone strength exercises...
are multi-joint, direct force vectors through the spine and hip, and apply loads heavier than those with single joint exercises.
Area between trabecular plates is made uup of
bone marrow with adipose tissue and blood products
Increase in muscle mass or strength can trigger a corresponding increase in
bone mineral density
New bone is formed when...
forces that reach or exceed a threshold stimulus initiate new bone formation in the area experiencing the mechanical strain.
Bone responds better to higher forces that are repeated over time such as
heavy loads and high impact ballistic work.
Once a motor unit is recruited it is (more/less) activation is needed to recruit it in the future.
less
The parent protein of collagen is
procollagen
Specificity of loading to increase bone strength needs to address the specific ________ of _________ in the skeleton.
region of interest. (Ex. sprinting will be good for developing femur, but not the wrist.)