Chapter 6

Variable-interval Schedule

One varies the time after which a desired response is reinforced

Delayed Interval

Overlap between UCS and CS, with CS presented first. (most effective)

Equipotentiality

The assumption that any NS can be paired with any UCS and result in a new CS-CR We are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations

operant conditioning

The consequences of your behavior will increase or decrease the likelihood that your behavior will occur again. Called instrumental conditioning as the organism's response serves an instrumental function. (they get something out of the response)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Phobias

irrational fears of specific objects or situations

Mirror Neurons

neurons that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs the action that was observed May serve as the basis of imitation learning, but firing of this doesn't always do that. Learning a behavior doesn't necessarily lead to performing that behavior

Trace Interval

no overlap between UCS and CS. The CS ends just briefly before the UCS is presented. (close 2nd)

Punishment

outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior

Thorndike's Law of Effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

Skinner Box

small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits an automatic response - UCR

Bandura's Observational Studies

We learn by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

second-order conditioning (higher-order conditioning)

When a CS becomes associated with other stimuli associated with the US. Helps account for the complexity of learned associations Weaker than regular classical conditioning

Token Economy Program

a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers Effectively used in a variety of institutional settings

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Extinction Burst

an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented. "Things sometimes need to get worse before they get better"

Experimental Neurosis

anxiety and agitation by subjects that are required to make too fine a distinction in a discrimination task

Reinforcers

any events or objects that, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus that does not need to be learned Caused by UCS Not learned

Partial-reinforcement extinction effect

behavior is more persistent under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement

Bobo Doll Study (Bandura)

children who watched adults act aggressively toward bobo doll acted aggressively

Schedules of Reinforcement

continuous; partial

Latent Inhibition

difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus

Garcia's Research

found that there may be differential reactions to classical conditioning Even after just one pairing, they developed taste aversion

Social Learning of Fear

hypothesis: monkeys can develop phobias about snakes by observing other monkeys reacting fearfully to snake

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

Psychomythology

the collective body of misinformation about human nature

David Premack

theorized about how a reinforcer's value could be determined

Premack Principle

using a more valued activity can reinforce the performance of a less valued activity

Two-Process Theory

we need both classical and operant conditioning to explain the persistence of anxiety disorders Ex: Acquire phobias from classical, and avoid feared stimuli when encountered - reduction in anxiety negatively reinforces fear

Pseudoconditioning

when the CS by itself triggers the UCR

Little Albert Experiment

1920 - Watson - classical conditioning on a 9 month old baby - white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat

Classical Conditioning

(Pavlovian) form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response

Two main types of Conditioning

1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Process

1. Establish Reflexive response (UCS - UCR) 2. Select CS 3. Pairing (CS + UCS - UCR) 4. Present CS alone (CS - CR) UCS = Meat UCR = Salivation CS = Tone CR = Salivation

Disadvantages of Punishment

1. Tells what not to do 2. Creates anxiety 3. Encourages subversive behavior 4. May provide model for aggressive behavior

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Accidentally discovered conditioning through research on the digestive system. Called it "psychic reflex" because it was not a purely psychological response.

What does the Frequency of pairing affect

Acquisition - The more frequently the CS and UCS are paired, the faster the acquisition of the CR. (Same with intensity)

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus following a response Ex: Scolding by a pet owner reduces a dog's habit of chewing on shoes

Spontaneous Recovery

After a rest interval, the CR will reoccur when the CS is presented. The CR is weaker, and will quickly extinguish again.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

After an established time, a desired response is reinforced

Extinction

After the CR is strong, repeated presentation of the CS alone will cause the CR to drop off until it does not work anymore.

Learning Styles

An individual's preferred or optimal method of acquiring new info Ex: Analytical vs. Holistic

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Classical - Organisms response is pulled out of the organism by the UCS, later the CS. Organisms reward is independent of what it does. changes in involuntary motor behavior (breathing) Operant - Organisms response is emitted, generated by the organism in a voluntary fashion. Animals reward is dependent on what it does. (no response, no reward) Changes in voluntary motor behavior

Simultaneous Interval

Complete overlap of UCS and CS. (somewhat effective)

Media and Violence

Difficult to draw the line between "playful" and "aggressive" behaviors in children

Pavlov's Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Insight

Grasping the underlying nature of a problem

Shaping

One can "shape" behavior by reinforcing successive approximations Can help explain how a new behavior is learned in the first place

Chaining

One can create more complex patterns by requiring more be done before a reinforcement is received

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response as a result of association with an unconditioned stimulus

Secondary reinforcers

Learned reinforcers that acquire their reinforcing properties through previous association with primary reinforcers

Vicarious Learning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action A key distinction in learning is between the acquisition of a behavior and its performance

Backward Interval

No overlap between UCS and CS. The UCS comes before the CS. (Rarely works)

Preparedness and Phobias

Preparedness for certain phobias also contradicts equipotentiality

Positive Reinforcement

Presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior Ex: Giving a child a Hershey's Kiss when they pick up their toys

negative reinforcement

Removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior. Ex: Ending a child's time-out for bad behavior once they've stopped whining

Conditioned Response (CR)

Response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning Product of nurture, not nature

Fetishism

Sexual attraction to nonliving things

Discriminative Stimulus

Stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement Ex: Friend waving at as to chat

Renewal Effect

Sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired Helps explain why people with phobias who've overcome them feel a reappearance of their symptoms when they return to their environment where they acquired them

Negative Punishment

Taking away a pleasant stimulus following a response Ex: Taking away a favorite toy, stopping a child from throwing future tantrums

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Generalization

The CR occurs for similar, but not exactly the same CS (ex: a different tone produces salivation) Stimulus generalization occurs on a generalization gradient: the more similar the CS is to the new CS, the stronger the CR

Observational Learning

The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior A powerful adaptive tool for humans and other animals.

Continuous Reinforcement

The organism is reinforced each time it produces the desired behavior Highly effective for teaching a behavior

Partial Reinforcement

The organism is reinforced for only a portion of the times it produces the desired behavior

Discrimination

The organism learns the CR for one CS and not for similar others. Ex: Dogs get meat powder after a high tone, not a low tone Ex: why we can watch scary movies - discrimination between real life and televised

Variable-Ratio Schedule

The ratio of responses to reinforcements changes (ex: 1:5, 1:2, 1:7)

Acquisition

The stage in classical conditioning during which the CR is strengthened by repeated pairing of CS + UCS

Behavior Modificaiton

The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior. (Application of Operant Conditioning)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

There is an established number of responses for reinforcement (ex: 1:5)

Primary Reinforcers

Those that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives