Chapter 6
Variable-interval Schedule
One varies the time after which a desired response is reinforced
Delayed Interval
Overlap between UCS and CS, with CS presented first. (most effective)
Equipotentiality
The assumption that any NS can be paired with any UCS and result in a new CS-CR We are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations
operant conditioning
The consequences of your behavior will increase or decrease the likelihood that your behavior will occur again. Called instrumental conditioning as the organism's response serves an instrumental function. (they get something out of the response)
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Phobias
irrational fears of specific objects or situations
Mirror Neurons
neurons that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs the action that was observed May serve as the basis of imitation learning, but firing of this doesn't always do that. Learning a behavior doesn't necessarily lead to performing that behavior
Trace Interval
no overlap between UCS and CS. The CS ends just briefly before the UCS is presented. (close 2nd)
Punishment
outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior
Thorndike's Law of Effect
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
Skinner Box
small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that elicits an automatic response - UCR
Bandura's Observational Studies
We learn by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
second-order conditioning (higher-order conditioning)
When a CS becomes associated with other stimuli associated with the US. Helps account for the complexity of learned associations Weaker than regular classical conditioning
Token Economy Program
a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers Effectively used in a variety of institutional settings
Learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Extinction Burst
an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented. "Things sometimes need to get worse before they get better"
Experimental Neurosis
anxiety and agitation by subjects that are required to make too fine a distinction in a discrimination task
Reinforcers
any events or objects that, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus that does not need to be learned Caused by UCS Not learned
Partial-reinforcement extinction effect
behavior is more persistent under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
Bobo Doll Study (Bandura)
children who watched adults act aggressively toward bobo doll acted aggressively
Schedules of Reinforcement
continuous; partial
Latent Inhibition
difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus
Garcia's Research
found that there may be differential reactions to classical conditioning Even after just one pairing, they developed taste aversion
Social Learning of Fear
hypothesis: monkeys can develop phobias about snakes by observing other monkeys reacting fearfully to snake
Gambler's Fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
Psychomythology
the collective body of misinformation about human nature
David Premack
theorized about how a reinforcer's value could be determined
Premack Principle
using a more valued activity can reinforce the performance of a less valued activity
Two-Process Theory
we need both classical and operant conditioning to explain the persistence of anxiety disorders Ex: Acquire phobias from classical, and avoid feared stimuli when encountered - reduction in anxiety negatively reinforces fear
Pseudoconditioning
when the CS by itself triggers the UCR
Little Albert Experiment
1920 - Watson - classical conditioning on a 9 month old baby - white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat
Classical Conditioning
(Pavlovian) form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response
Two main types of Conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Process
1. Establish Reflexive response (UCS - UCR) 2. Select CS 3. Pairing (CS + UCS - UCR) 4. Present CS alone (CS - CR) UCS = Meat UCR = Salivation CS = Tone CR = Salivation
Disadvantages of Punishment
1. Tells what not to do 2. Creates anxiety 3. Encourages subversive behavior 4. May provide model for aggressive behavior
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Accidentally discovered conditioning through research on the digestive system. Called it "psychic reflex" because it was not a purely psychological response.
What does the Frequency of pairing affect
Acquisition - The more frequently the CS and UCS are paired, the faster the acquisition of the CR. (Same with intensity)
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus following a response Ex: Scolding by a pet owner reduces a dog's habit of chewing on shoes
Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest interval, the CR will reoccur when the CS is presented. The CR is weaker, and will quickly extinguish again.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
After an established time, a desired response is reinforced
Extinction
After the CR is strong, repeated presentation of the CS alone will cause the CR to drop off until it does not work anymore.
Learning Styles
An individual's preferred or optimal method of acquiring new info Ex: Analytical vs. Holistic
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
Classical - Organisms response is pulled out of the organism by the UCS, later the CS. Organisms reward is independent of what it does. changes in involuntary motor behavior (breathing) Operant - Organisms response is emitted, generated by the organism in a voluntary fashion. Animals reward is dependent on what it does. (no response, no reward) Changes in voluntary motor behavior
Simultaneous Interval
Complete overlap of UCS and CS. (somewhat effective)
Media and Violence
Difficult to draw the line between "playful" and "aggressive" behaviors in children
Pavlov's Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
Insight
Grasping the underlying nature of a problem
Shaping
One can "shape" behavior by reinforcing successive approximations Can help explain how a new behavior is learned in the first place
Chaining
One can create more complex patterns by requiring more be done before a reinforcement is received
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response as a result of association with an unconditioned stimulus
Secondary reinforcers
Learned reinforcers that acquire their reinforcing properties through previous association with primary reinforcers
Vicarious Learning
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action A key distinction in learning is between the acquisition of a behavior and its performance
Backward Interval
No overlap between UCS and CS. The UCS comes before the CS. (Rarely works)
Preparedness and Phobias
Preparedness for certain phobias also contradicts equipotentiality
Positive Reinforcement
Presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior Ex: Giving a child a Hershey's Kiss when they pick up their toys
negative reinforcement
Removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior. Ex: Ending a child's time-out for bad behavior once they've stopped whining
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning Product of nurture, not nature
Fetishism
Sexual attraction to nonliving things
Discriminative Stimulus
Stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement Ex: Friend waving at as to chat
Renewal Effect
Sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired Helps explain why people with phobias who've overcome them feel a reappearance of their symptoms when they return to their environment where they acquired them
Negative Punishment
Taking away a pleasant stimulus following a response Ex: Taking away a favorite toy, stopping a child from throwing future tantrums
Instinctive Drift
Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
Generalization
The CR occurs for similar, but not exactly the same CS (ex: a different tone produces salivation) Stimulus generalization occurs on a generalization gradient: the more similar the CS is to the new CS, the stronger the CR
Observational Learning
The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior A powerful adaptive tool for humans and other animals.
Continuous Reinforcement
The organism is reinforced each time it produces the desired behavior Highly effective for teaching a behavior
Partial Reinforcement
The organism is reinforced for only a portion of the times it produces the desired behavior
Discrimination
The organism learns the CR for one CS and not for similar others. Ex: Dogs get meat powder after a high tone, not a low tone Ex: why we can watch scary movies - discrimination between real life and televised
Variable-Ratio Schedule
The ratio of responses to reinforcements changes (ex: 1:5, 1:2, 1:7)
Acquisition
The stage in classical conditioning during which the CR is strengthened by repeated pairing of CS + UCS
Behavior Modificaiton
The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior. (Application of Operant Conditioning)
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
There is an established number of responses for reinforcement (ex: 1:5)
Primary Reinforcers
Those that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives