Chapter 7 psychology

working backward heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which one attempts to solve a problem by working from the goal state back to the start state. water Lillies growing in a pond double in area every 24 hours. On the first day of spring, only 1 lily pad is on the surface. Sixty days later, the pond is entirely covered. On what day is half the pond covered? day 59

means-end analysis heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which the distance to the goal state is decreased systematically by breaking the problem down into subgoals and achieving these subgoals. Ex: Tower of Hanoi requires planning (Frontal lobe) practice effect: with practice, get better and more efficient

types of creativity

Covergent Thinking- type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually leas to that single answer by using previous knowledge and thinking Divergent Thinking- type of thinking in wit a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point

heuristic

a problem solving strategy that uses ones past experience with solving problems doesn't guarantee correct answer

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

adjusts a previously existing value or starting point to make a decision -tend to attach too much importance to starting anchor and do not adjust sufficiently

what are concepts?

categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences

what are the critiques of IQ testing?

clearly more than 1 type of intelligence one thing IQ tests measure is the ability to take tests motivation is very important factor and not easy to measure environmental factors are also very important

What is cognition?

cognition is thinking encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem-solving, judgment, language and memory

what is a learning disorder?

cognitive disorders affecting different areas ex: reading, written expression, math ex: adhd

language

communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another language is from of communication, but not all communication is language ex: posture, movements, vocalizations

Raymond Catell on Intelligence

divided general intelligence into crystallized and fluid crystallized intelligence: acquired knowledge and ability to retrieve it fluid intelligence: ability to see complex relationships and solve problems ex: navigating your way home when you hit a detour

Compared to formal concepts learned in science and math, natural concepts tend to be ________.

fuzzy with unclear boundaries

what is a bell curve?

graph that demonstrates normal distribution of a trait ex: intelligence, height

In Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory, ________ intelligence and ________ intelligence are often combined into a single type: emotional intelligence.

interpersonal; intrapersonal

language determinism

language influences the way that we think

what is the Flynn effect?

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

what is event schema? (cognitive script)

set of behaviors that can feel like a routine ex: movie theater vs elevator

grammar

set of rules used to convey meaning through the use of lexicon -most verbs end in -ed to indicate past tense

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Language Development

the process by which children come to understand and communicate language during early childhood critical period: proficiency at acquiring language is maximal earlier in life

syntax

the way words are organized into sentences

lexicon

the words of a given language -vocab

What is the representativeness heuristic?

when you look for a representative prototype and use that to make decisions/inferences

Why measure intelligence?

1. clinical and educational settings 2. learning difficulties or behavioral difficulties in classrooms 3. courtroom to determine eligibility for trial 4. SSA benefits (security)

how do prototypes develop?

1. the exposure a person has to objects in a category 2. the knowledge a person has about objects in a category 3. the culture of a person

Typically, individuals with an IQ of ____ or above are considered to be gifted.

130

From ________ months old, children are most capable of using simple sentences such as "I see."

18 to 24

conformation bias

pit fall to problem solving a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

representativeness heuristic example

Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrates. Which of the following are more likely Linda is a bank teller Linda is a bank teller AND active in the feminist movement

what are the types of concepts?

Natural Concepts Artificial Concepts

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf

Proposed language determines thought, suggested that a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Robert Sternberg on intelligence

Triarchic theory of intelligence practical: find solutions that work in everyday life by applying knowledge based on experience (street smarts) creative: marked by inventing or imaging a solution to a problem or situation analytical: closely aligned with cadmic problem solving and computations

what is a prototype?

an example that closely matches the defining characteristics (or common features) of a concept

Tasks that require you to compare, contrast, or evaluate are using the ________ intelligence component of the triarchic theory of intelligence.

analytical

Frank mistakenly believes that there are more words that begin with the letter "k" than there are with the letter "k" in the third position due to the ________.

availability heuristic

phoneme

basic sound unit of a given language

cognitive universalism (Piaget)

concepts are universal and influence the development of language

what are natural concepts?

concepts formed as a result of peoples experiences in the real world most of the concepts we form are natural concepts defined by a general set a features ex: birds, fruit

what are artificial concepts? (formal concepts)

concepts formed by learning specific rules many of these concepts were learned in school ex: triangles

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common If youve been recently thinking about something it may be more likely to "pop into your head" Does the letter R appear more often as the first or third letter in English words? 1 in 63 chance of dying from the flu 1 in 3,700,000 chance of being killed by a shark

what does cognition explain?

how and why we think the way we do

what is standard deviation?

how data are dispersed in a population from average score

What do concepts allow us to do?

identify new objects and events that may fit the concept ex: seeing a new type of dog for the first time

what is role schema?

making assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave

what is intellectual quotient?

measure of intelligence (IQ) score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence

what is schema?

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts this organization of energy allows for efficiency

IQ, ethnicity, and SES

minority and poor children score an average 15 points lower than white, middle/upper-class children

Frontal cortex and insight

one study found patients with lateral fronted cortex damage (82%) outperformed healthy participants (43%) on insight problems intact frontal lobes may lead to a mental set effect

Temporal Lobe and insight

one study found that tDCS inhibited the left anterior temporal lobe but activated right anterior temporal lobe facilitated insight problems found same nine-circle problem 14/33 vs <1 in 1 billion

Babies all across the world are born with the inherent ability to differentiate between and potentially produce all possible __________, but as they grow older, lose the ability to differentiate those which are not part of their native language(s).

phonemes

mental set

pit fall to problem solving persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

hindsight bias

pit fall to problem solving the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

functional fixedness

pit fall to problem solving the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

pragmatics

practical aspects of communication "social niceties"

trial and error

problem solving strategy that tries different solutions until the problem is solved

algorithm

problem solving strategy that uses step-by-step problem solving formula

semantics

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words