Chapter 8
Gender schema
A mental structure that organizes gender-related information
Gender identity
A person's awareness of being a male or female
biological
Describes gender role development in evolutionary and biological terms. Males adapted to become more aggressive and competitive and females more nurturing as it ensured that their genes were passed to the next generation. Gender differences may also be explained by subtle differences in brain structure as well as differences in hormones.
Authoritative
High warmth Firm, consistent, coupled with discussion control
Permissive
High warmth Low control
Gender differences
Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females
Gender role
The behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate for a given gender
Gender typing
The process of acquiring gender roles
Gender stability
The understanding that gender generally does not change over time; however, superficial changes in appearance might bring a change in gender
Gender constancy
The understanding that gender remains the same throughout life, despite superficial changes in appearance or attitude
Contextual
Contextual explanations rely on social learning and the influence of the sociocultural context in which children are raised. Males and females have different social experiences from birth. Gender typing occurs through socialization, through a child's interpretation of the world around him or her, and modeling and reinforcement from parents, peers, and teachers.
Authoritarian
Low warmth High, emphasizing control and punishment without discussion or explanation control
Indifferent
Low warmth Low control
Signs of Child Abuse and Neglect The Child Exhibits extremes in behavior, such as overly compliant or demanding behavior, extreme passivity, withdrawal, or aggression. Has not received help for physical or medical problems (e.g., dental care, eyeglasses, immunizations) brought to the parents' attention. Has difficulty concentrating or learning problems that appear to be without cause. Is very watchful, as if waiting for something bad to happen. Frequently lacks adult supervision. Has unexplained burns, bruises, broken bones, or black eyes. Is absent from school often, especially with fading bruises upon return. Is reluctant to be around a particular person or shrinks at the approach of a parent or adult. Reports injury by a parent or another adult caregiver. Lacks sufficient clothing for the weather. Is delayed in physical or emotional development. States that there is no one at home to provide care.
The Parent Shows indifference and little concern for the child. Denies problems at home. Blames problems on the child. Refers to the child as bad or worthless or berates the child. Has demands that are too high for the child to achieve. Offers conflicting, unconvincing, or no explanation for the child's injury. Uses harsh physical discipline with the child or suggests that caregivers use harsh physical discipline if the child misbehaves. Is abusing alcohol or other drugs.
cognitive
The emergence of gender identity leads children to classify the world around them according to gender labels, and they begin to show more interest in gender-appropriate toys. Children show an increase in stereotype knowledge, evaluate their own gender more positively, and demonstrate rigidity of gender-related beliefs. Gender constancy furthers gender typing as children attend more to norms of their sex. According to gender schema theory, once children can label their sex, their gender schema forms and becomes an organizing principle. Children notice differences between males and females in preferred clothes, toys, and activities, as well as how their culture classifies males and females as different and encompassing different roles. Children then use their gender schemas as guides for their behavior and attitudes, and gender typing occurs.