Chapter 9

Sensorimotor Stage: birth- 2 years

-Schemas are developed through sensory & motor activities -Object Permanence: infant's recognition that object & people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly. --initially thought directly tied to sensations & actions→ no symbolic thought --objects not sensed doesn't exist for infant (out of sight, out of mind) --Gradually develops "object permanence" (can think about objects not sensed) ----Baby without object permanence v.s. toddler with object permanence ----even once object permanence is present, toddlers don't yet have the cognitive ability to continue to track object's location.

Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years

-ability to employ significant language & to think symbolically, but the child lacks operations & thinking is egocentric & animistic --3 qualities: lack of operations, egocentric & animistic 1-Preoperational thinking: lack of operations. i.e. swimming pool is deflated- child thinks that the pool is gone 2-Egocentrism: inability to take the perspective of another person ---selfishness- ask question while the mom is on the phone 3-Animistic: believe that objects (sun) has motives, feeling, and intentions -now has symbolic thought, so shows imaginative play -but cannot reason logically, especially when faced with problems involving 2 or more variables. -Cognitive tasks

Formal Operational Stage: 11- etc...

-abstract & hypothetical thinking --can construct a well-reasoned argument based on hypothetical concepts & logical processes 1- imaginary audience- believe that they are the center of other's thoughts & intentions 2- personal fable- thinking that no one else are having difficulties that no one understand

Concrete Operational Stages: 7-11 years.

-child can perform mental operations on concrete objects & understand reversibility & conversation, but thinking is tied to concrete, tangible objects & events. --reversibility→ concrete operational children also can now successfully perform "operations" --conversation: understanding that certain physical characteristics (volume) remain unchanged, even though appearances may change

Germinal

1st stage of prenatal development. Beginning with ovulation followed by conception and implantation in the uterus. 1st 2 weeks.

Embryonic

2nd stage of prenatal development. Begins after uterine implantation & lasts through the 8th week

Prenatal brain development

3 weeks after conception the midbrain, hindbrain, and forebrain are one long neural tube and later become the brain and spinal cord.

Fetal

3rd stage. 8 weeks- birth. Rapid weight gain in the fetus & the fine detailing of bodily organs & system

Cephalocaudal patterns of motor development

Cephalocaudal- head to tail. The head is disproportionately large compared to the lower body

Embryonic period

Embryonic period: From implantation to eight weeks - at 8 weeks, the major organ systems have become well differentiated. The head grows at a faster rate than other parts of the body.

Fertilization

Fertilization & Germinal Stage: 1st Prenatal Stage-- the new zygote is on the move to the uterus for about 2 weeks.

Fetal period

Fetal period: From eight weeks to birth - at 4 months, all the actual body parts and organs are established. The fetal stage is primarily a time for increased growth and "fine detailing."

Identical v.s. fraternal twins:

Fraternal or dizygotic twin- have two eggs. share about ½ of the same genes Identical or Monozygotic twins- have one egg that is divided into 2. Identical chromosomes and genes. share all their genes. Both types of twins share the same parents, and are in the same environment, so it's a good natural experiment. Identical twins should be more alike than fraternal twins. Identical twins have more similar intelligence than fraternal

Genetic chromosomes

Genetic (xx) females exposed to androgens in utero masculinized in appearance, brain, and behavior. Genetic (xy) males insensitive to androgens develop female appearance, gender identity, and behavior.

Nature v.s. Nurture

Genetic v.s. life experiences influences development Nature-- maturation: continuing influence of heredity throughout development. Age-related physical & behavioral changes characteristics of a species Nurture-- critical periods: time of special sensitivity to specific types of learning→ shapes the capacity for future development.

Stages of Prenatal development

Germinal period Embryonic period Fetal period

Germinal period

Germinal period: From conception to implantation - after discharge from either the left or right ovary, the ovum travels to the opening of the fallopian tube. - if fertilization occurs, it normally takes place in the 1st 3rd of the fallopian tube. The fertilized ovum is referred to as a zygote. - when the zygote reaches the uterus, it implants itself in the wall of the uterus and begins to grow tendril-like structures that intertwine with the rich supply of blood vessels located there. After implantation, the organism is know as an embryo

Effects of early sex hormones on sexual orientation/gender role development

Hormones induced brian differences in males, females, and gays. Hormone induced sexual behavior different in animals Evidence that at certain time in dev. the brains of gay males were exposed to less androgen in utero whereas those of some lesbians may have been exposed to more androgen than usual.

Implantation

Implantation & the 6 week embryonic stage embryo attaches itself to the uterine wall-- begins to grow. Organ (placenta) grows between the uterus & the fetus. It nourishes the embryo by taking oxygen & nutrients from the mother's blood.

Longitudinal v.s. Cross-sectional methods of developmental research

Longitudinal design: research design that measures a single individual or group of individual over an extended period & gives information about age changes generalizability-- results from a study could be generalized to a sample population to the entire population Cross-sectional design: research technique that measures individuals of various ages at one point in time & provides information about age differences cohort effects-- differences from specific histories of age groups studied

Sex hormones

Males need hormones (androgens like testosterone) to stimulate male development, and MIS to turn off female duct development. Hormones induced brain differences in males, females, and gays. Hormone induced sexual behavior different in animals. Evidence that at certain time in development the brains of gay males were exposed to less androgen in utero whereas those of some lesbians may have been exposed to more androgen than usual.

Placenta

Mom's blood comes close to the baby's blood.

theoretical issues or questions

Nature v.s. Nurture Stages v.s. Continuity Stability v.s. Change

Genetically programmed reflexes ("nature") v.s. imitation of environmental models ("nurture")

Nature- i.e. swimming as a toddler. their lungs automatically closes when water is swallowed. Nurture- i.e. baby mimicking a Dad's face

Evaluation of Piaget's theory

Piaget was right about us all passing through these stages & about how our mental processes become more abstract as we develop BUT: the stages are not as rigid as he proposed Piaget underestimated abilities of younger children because of the way he tested them changes are more gradual than Piaget

Other prenatal influences on development

Potential Teratogens-- produce birth defects irradiation (x-rays) Rubella (German measles) Excess vitamin A or D Cortisone, Barbiturates, etc drugs... Alcohol or Tobacco use. Even if they don't cause birth defects, other prenatal factors like mom's diet and level of stress, affect gene expression, development, and later behavior.

Development lasts decades in humans

Prenatal brain development Brian growth during 1st 14 years Brain and body changes over our lifespan

Proximodistal patterns of motor development

Proximodistal- near to far. Innermost parts of the body develop before the outermost.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor Stage: birth- 2 years Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years Concrete Operational Stages: 7-11 years. Formal Operational Stage: 11- etc...

Separation and stranger anxieties

Separation anxiety= attachment has occurred -As an infant→ only recognize facial expressions-- fine with strangers -Older toddler→ recognize people as individuals- only want to be with mom. Not strangers.

Stability v.s. Change of individual's characteristics

Stability-- measurements of personality taken during childhood are important predictors of adult personality Changes...?

Stages v.s. Continuity of development

Stages-- discrete & qualitatively different from one another Continuity-- gradual & steady quantitative changes

Harlow's monkey research

Studied development of attachments Harlow wished to study attachment under controlled, experimental conditions Which is more important in the development of attachment Physical nurturing (i.e. feeding the baby) Emotional nurturing (tender loving care) the monkeys spend minimal amount of time with the nutrient mother gave the food the monkeys goes to the terry-cloth mother when they are scared, new environment, gain confidence, use the terry-cloth mother as a base NOT food to gain bond/attachment. TLC that gains attachment

Teratogens (i.e. fetal alcohol syndromes, fetal tobacco syndrome)

Teratogens: environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal development. "malformation." Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: combination of birth defects → organ deformities & entla, motor and or growth retardation form maternal alcohol abuse

Assimilation:

applying existing mental patterns (schemas) to new information. New information is incorporated (assimilated) into existing schemas. Works in tandem with accommodation

Secure v.s. insecure attachment of human infants (Ainsworth)

attachment in humans -signs of secure attachment --6-7 months shows separation anxiety. Stranger anxiety --Happy greeting when parents return --Uses parent/caregiver as a base to explore environment

Critical periods for certain influences on development

critical periods: a time of special sensitivity to specific types of learning, which shapes the capacity for future development.

Attachment research

gradual process that takes place over months depends on good, consistent parenting sign of secure attachment (Ainsworth) Insecurely attached infants show more anxiety/ambivalent or avoidant/detached relations to parents type of early attachment correlates with adult attachments & ability to be in committed relationships characteristics of both baby & caregiver affect ease of attachment process

MIS

hormones that turn off female duct development.

Egocentrism

inability to take the perspective of another person - selfishness- ask ? while the mom is on the phone

Object Permanence

infant's recognition that object & people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly.

Brian growth during 1st 14 years

infants learn and develop, synaptic connections between active neurons strengthen, and dendritic connections become more elaborate. Synaptic pruning helps support this process. Myelination, the accumulation of fatty tissue coating the axons of nerve cells, continues until early adulthood.

Infant attachment correlates with/predicts adult attachment

insecurely attached infants show more anxiety/ambivalent or avoidant/detached reactions to parents type of early attachment correlates adult attachments & ability to be in committed relationships characteristics of both baby & caregiver affect ease of attachment process Separation Anxiety means attachment has occurred --as an infant→ only recognize facial expressions- fine with strangers --older-toddlers→ recognize people as individuals- only want to be with mom not strangers.

Maturation v.s. Learning effects on development

maturation: the continuing influence of heredity throughout development. Age-related physical and behavioral changes characteristic of a species.

Sexual differentiation

no androgen like testosterone xx→ ovaries→ female genitalia chromosomes only trigger 1st step- Hormone environment responsible for genital, duct, and brain changes testes produce testosterone xy→ testes→ male genitalia

Accommodation:

process of adjusting (accommodating) existing mental patterns (schemas) or development new ones to better fit with new information. Works in tandem with assimilation.

genes:

segment of DNA that occupies a specific place on a particular chromosome and carries the code for hereditary transmission.

Developmental psychology

study of age-related changes in behavior, mental processes, and stages of growth from conception to death.

Epigenetic

study of heritable changes in gene function that are influenced by environmental factors rather than changes in the DNA

Androgens

testosterone hormones. stimulate male development

chromosomes:

the threadlike molecules of DNA that carry genetic information

Brain and body changes over our lifespan

there are dramatic changes in our brain and body proportions as we grow older. At birth, our head was ¼ our total body size, whereas in adulthood, our head is ⅛.

Conservation Abilities

understanding that certain physical characteristics (volume) remain unchanged, even though appearances may change