Chapter 9: Early Approaches to Psychology
principle of heterogony of ends:
* physical causality versus psychological causality* - goal-directed behavior seldom attains its goal; something unexpected almost always happens that changes the original motivation
principles of physiological psych (1874)
*"Birth" of Psych*
Wundt's student, Granville Stanley Hall established the 1st American ..... (1883, Johns Hopkins University)
*"Birth" of Psych* - experimental psychological laboratory
Wilhelm Wundt established ...........
*"Birth" of Psych* - psychology as an experimental discipline
Wundt's lab in Lepzing, Germany was the first to have its .....
*"Birth" of Psych* - results published in a scholarly journal
the ____ was learned through .....
*Edward Titchener* *Structuralism's Goals* - what - introspection
in addition to his studies of memory, Müller became the leading researcher in psychophysics following the death of Fechner
*G.E. Müller*
he developed nonsense syllables to use as stimuli in his research; the stimuli were essentially meaningless
*Hermann Ebbinghaus*
researched learning and memory
*Hermann Ebbinghaus*
after various time intervals they were to relearn the same list
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method
the difference in number of exposures to relearn in comparison to the number of exposure to initial master was called savings
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method
the subject is to learn a series of syllabus by looking at them sequentially until mastery
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method
created psychology's first retention curve
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance
many of his major findings are still valid today
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance
this was the first time that learning and memory has been studied as they occurred; ......
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance - memory could be studied experimentally
- more rapid forgetting during the first hours following learning and slower thereafter - overlearning decreased the rate of forgetting - distributed practice was more effective than massed practice
*Hermann Ebbinghaus* -conclusions
affections could have the attributes of quality, intensity, and duration
*Mental Events*
attributes of sensations and images were quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity
*Mental Events*
emotions were described in terms of one dimension- pleasantness- unpleasantness
*Mental Events*
elements of consciousness (the mind) were ______ (elements of perceptions), ______ (elements of ideas) and ________ (elements of emotions)
*Mental Events* - *sensations* - *images* - *affections*
the elements could be known only by their ....
*Mental Events* - attributes
külpe proposed that some though could be imageless and also that the higher mental processes could be studied experimentally
*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*
the mental set can be induced by instruction or by simply the person's past experiences
*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*
the most influential work which came out of Würzburg school (where Külpe as the leader) was the idea of mental set
*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*
______ ____ is a problem-solving strategy, which causes the person to behave in certain ways completely unaware that they are doing so
*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School* - *Mental Set*
_________- doubting, confidence, hesitation, etc.
*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School* - Imageless Thought
psychology's goal was to understand both simple (basic processes of the mind) and complex (higher mental processes) conscious phenomena
*Psychology's Goal*
goals of experimental psychology:
*Psychology's Goal* - 1) to discover the basic elements of thought - 2) to discover the laws by which mental elements combine into more complex mental experiences
for ________ _________, experimentation was to be used; however, for ______ _________ experimentations could not be used (only naturalistic observation could be used)
*Psychology's Goal* - simple phenomena - complex phenomena
more complicated and required more of the subject than Wundt's
*Titchener's process of introspection*
Titchener's introspection required the subject to describe the ...... which form complex cognitive experience
*Titchener's process of introspection* - basic, raw, elemental experiences
he wanted ______ (ex. red, round, smooth), not ________ ________ (ex. apple)
*Titchener's process of introspection* - sensations - not perceptions
voluntarism, .............. (not structuralism, as is often claimed)
*Voluntarism* - psychology's first school
the name that Wundt gave to his approach to psych was _______- because of its emphasis on will, choice, and purpose
*Voluntarism* - voluntarism
took the achievements of other researchers and his own early research and synthesized them into a unified program of research
*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions*
psychology's first school was formed- *voluntarism*, because of its ............
*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - emphasis on will of the person
what is consciousness? what mental laws govern consciousness?
*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - he attempted to answer these questions by studying topics like sensation and perception
determined that this program must stress selective attention, human can decide __________ ("will") and therefore ___________
*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - what is attended to - what is perceived
experimental introspection was not the unstructured self-observation used by earlier philosophers
*Wundt's Methodologies*
in most instances the subject reflected on subjective experience by responding with a simple "yes/no" response
*Wundt's Methodologies*
these responses were made without any description of internal events
*Wundt's Methodologies*
used laboratory instruments to present stimuli
*Wundt's Methodologies*
used to study immediate (basic) experience but not the higher mental processes
*Wundt's Methodologies*
employed experimentation but primarily ________
*Wundt's Methodologies* - introspection
stumpf and student oskar phungst helped investigate the ....
*carl stumpf and berlin* - *Clever Hans Phenomenon*
the creation of high-level intellectual feats by non-human animals by consciously or unconsciously providing them with cues that guide their behavior
*carl stumpf and berlin* - *Clever Hans Phenomenon*
influenced the development of Gestalt psychology, the three "founders" of ______ ________ studied with Stumpf
*carl stumpf and berlin* - Gestalt Psychology
like brentano, stumpf argued for study of intact, meaningful experiences, phenomenology-
*carl stumpf and berlin* - the study of mental phenomena
principle towards the development of opposites:
*complexity of psychological experiences* - after prolongs experiences of one type, there is an increased tendency to seek the opposite type of experience
principle of contrasts:
*complexity of psychological experiences* - opposite experiences intensify one another
others factors include the development of the study of animal behavior, behaviorism, and objective methods of research
*decline of structuralism*
the lack of interest in practical implications, and use of introspection as a viable method in research
*decline of structuralism*
his goal was to describe the meanings and mental essences by which humans experience themselves, not mental elements, which differed greatly from the structuralists
*edmund husserl and phennomenology*
two types of introspection
*edmund husserl and phennomenology*
one focuses on the ________ described by Brentano
*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - intentionality
focuses on the essences of mental processes. he referred to it as ________ ___________
*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - pure phenomenology
second focusses on _________ _________- the processes a person experiences
*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - subjective experience
the important aspect of the mind was not what was in it, but ......
*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - what it did
mental acts are aimed at performing some function and incorporate something outside of itself (which he called ......)
*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - *intentionality*
he employed *phenomenological introspection*-
*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - introspective analysis of intact, meaningful experiences
studies should emphasize the ________ _______
*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - mind's processes
he described how the elements combine by using the law of contiguity as many others had done before
*law of contiguity*
measure of differences in reaction time
*mental chronometry*
used a method developed by Franciscus Donders
*mental chronometry*
although the nervous system doesn't cause mental events, it can be used t explain some of their characteristics
*neurological correlates of mental events*
Titchenner referred to himself as a .........- environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, which are independent of each other
*neurological correlates of mental events* - *psychophysical parallelist*
arrangements not experiments before can be produced
*perception and attention*
the interaction of these factors makeup the person's perceptual field
*perception and attention*
the part of this field the person ........
*perception and attention* - *attends to* is apperceived
elements which are attended to can be arranged and rearranged as the person wills
*perception and attention* - *creative synthesis*
*apperception* (selective attention) is __________ and ________
*perception and attention* - active and voluntary
these associations form a core or a context
*the context theory of meaning*
what gives sensations and events meaning is the images and events which the sensation has been associated contiguously in the past
*the context theory of meaning*
the cataloging of the basic mental elements that make up conscious experience
*the what was learned through introspection*
accompanied sensations and could be described along three dimensions (_________ _______ of ________)
*two basic types of mental experience: feelings* - (tridimensional theory of feelings)
excitement- ___________
*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - calm
sensations occurred when a sense organ is stimulated and the ........
*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - impulse reaches the brain
described in terms of ______ (visual, auditory, etc.), ____ (loudness, brightness, etc.), and ______ (pitch, hue, etc.)
*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - modality - intensity - quality
strain- _____________
*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - relaxation
pleasantness- _____________
*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* -unpleasantness
_________ and data are events in human consciousness as they occurred
*two types of experience* - immediate experiences
this was to be the subject matter of psychology
*two types of experience* - immediate psychology
________ ________ and data are obtained via measuring devices and thus its not direct
*two types of experience* - mediate experience
this is what other sciences were based on
*two types of experience* - mediate experiences
higher mental processes could be deuced from the study of culture such as social customs, myths, history, morals, language, art, law
*wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in human culture*
culminated in his 10-volume work "cultural psychology" (................)
*wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in human culture* - Völkerpsychologie
he only sought to _______ _______ _______ or the structure of the mind
- describe mental experience
the _____ answered the questions of how the elements combined
- how
wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in _______ ________
- human culture
therefore, the school was called ......
- structuralism
the ______ involved the neurological correlates of mental events
- why
psychological causality (prediction) was not possible
* physical causality versus psychological causality*
proposed that societal living requires that we give meanings to our own sensations
Hans Vaihinger: as if
we do that by inventing terms, concepts, and theories and then acting "as if" they were true
Hans Vaihinger: as if
physical causality is a reality because events could be predicted on the basis of preceding conditions
* physical causality versus psychological causality*
researched attention, sensation/perception, reaction time
Wilhelm Wundt
school:
defined as a group of individuals who share common assumptions, work on common problems, and use common methods
all sciences are based on ________-
experiences
passive process governed by the stimulation present, the physical makeup of the person, and the person's past experience
perception