Chapter 9: Early Approaches to Psychology

principle of heterogony of ends:

* physical causality versus psychological causality* - goal-directed behavior seldom attains its goal; something unexpected almost always happens that changes the original motivation

principles of physiological psych (1874)

*"Birth" of Psych*

Wundt's student, Granville Stanley Hall established the 1st American ..... (1883, Johns Hopkins University)

*"Birth" of Psych* - experimental psychological laboratory

Wilhelm Wundt established ...........

*"Birth" of Psych* - psychology as an experimental discipline

Wundt's lab in Lepzing, Germany was the first to have its .....

*"Birth" of Psych* - results published in a scholarly journal

the ____ was learned through .....

*Edward Titchener* *Structuralism's Goals* - what - introspection

in addition to his studies of memory, Müller became the leading researcher in psychophysics following the death of Fechner

*G.E. Müller*

he developed nonsense syllables to use as stimuli in his research; the stimuli were essentially meaningless

*Hermann Ebbinghaus*

researched learning and memory

*Hermann Ebbinghaus*

after various time intervals they were to relearn the same list

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method

the difference in number of exposures to relearn in comparison to the number of exposure to initial master was called savings

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method

the subject is to learn a series of syllabus by looking at them sequentially until mastery

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - method

created psychology's first retention curve

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance

many of his major findings are still valid today

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance

this was the first time that learning and memory has been studied as they occurred; ......

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* - significance - memory could be studied experimentally

- more rapid forgetting during the first hours following learning and slower thereafter - overlearning decreased the rate of forgetting - distributed practice was more effective than massed practice

*Hermann Ebbinghaus* -conclusions

affections could have the attributes of quality, intensity, and duration

*Mental Events*

attributes of sensations and images were quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity

*Mental Events*

emotions were described in terms of one dimension- pleasantness- unpleasantness

*Mental Events*

elements of consciousness (the mind) were ______ (elements of perceptions), ______ (elements of ideas) and ________ (elements of emotions)

*Mental Events* - *sensations* - *images* - *affections*

the elements could be known only by their ....

*Mental Events* - attributes

külpe proposed that some though could be imageless and also that the higher mental processes could be studied experimentally

*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*

the mental set can be induced by instruction or by simply the person's past experiences

*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*

the most influential work which came out of Würzburg school (where Külpe as the leader) was the idea of mental set

*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School*

______ ____ is a problem-solving strategy, which causes the person to behave in certain ways completely unaware that they are doing so

*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School* - *Mental Set*

_________- doubting, confidence, hesitation, etc.

*Oswald Külpe: The Würzburg School* - Imageless Thought

psychology's goal was to understand both simple (basic processes of the mind) and complex (higher mental processes) conscious phenomena

*Psychology's Goal*

goals of experimental psychology:

*Psychology's Goal* - 1) to discover the basic elements of thought - 2) to discover the laws by which mental elements combine into more complex mental experiences

for ________ _________, experimentation was to be used; however, for ______ _________ experimentations could not be used (only naturalistic observation could be used)

*Psychology's Goal* - simple phenomena - complex phenomena

more complicated and required more of the subject than Wundt's

*Titchener's process of introspection*

Titchener's introspection required the subject to describe the ...... which form complex cognitive experience

*Titchener's process of introspection* - basic, raw, elemental experiences

he wanted ______ (ex. red, round, smooth), not ________ ________ (ex. apple)

*Titchener's process of introspection* - sensations - not perceptions

voluntarism, .............. (not structuralism, as is often claimed)

*Voluntarism* - psychology's first school

the name that Wundt gave to his approach to psych was _______- because of its emphasis on will, choice, and purpose

*Voluntarism* - voluntarism

took the achievements of other researchers and his own early research and synthesized them into a unified program of research

*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions*

psychology's first school was formed- *voluntarism*, because of its ............

*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - emphasis on will of the person

what is consciousness? what mental laws govern consciousness?

*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - he attempted to answer these questions by studying topics like sensation and perception

determined that this program must stress selective attention, human can decide __________ ("will") and therefore ___________

*Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions* - what is attended to - what is perceived

experimental introspection was not the unstructured self-observation used by earlier philosophers

*Wundt's Methodologies*

in most instances the subject reflected on subjective experience by responding with a simple "yes/no" response

*Wundt's Methodologies*

these responses were made without any description of internal events

*Wundt's Methodologies*

used laboratory instruments to present stimuli

*Wundt's Methodologies*

used to study immediate (basic) experience but not the higher mental processes

*Wundt's Methodologies*

employed experimentation but primarily ________

*Wundt's Methodologies* - introspection

stumpf and student oskar phungst helped investigate the ....

*carl stumpf and berlin* - *Clever Hans Phenomenon*

the creation of high-level intellectual feats by non-human animals by consciously or unconsciously providing them with cues that guide their behavior

*carl stumpf and berlin* - *Clever Hans Phenomenon*

influenced the development of Gestalt psychology, the three "founders" of ______ ________ studied with Stumpf

*carl stumpf and berlin* - Gestalt Psychology

like brentano, stumpf argued for study of intact, meaningful experiences, phenomenology-

*carl stumpf and berlin* - the study of mental phenomena

principle towards the development of opposites:

*complexity of psychological experiences* - after prolongs experiences of one type, there is an increased tendency to seek the opposite type of experience

principle of contrasts:

*complexity of psychological experiences* - opposite experiences intensify one another

others factors include the development of the study of animal behavior, behaviorism, and objective methods of research

*decline of structuralism*

the lack of interest in practical implications, and use of introspection as a viable method in research

*decline of structuralism*

his goal was to describe the meanings and mental essences by which humans experience themselves, not mental elements, which differed greatly from the structuralists

*edmund husserl and phennomenology*

two types of introspection

*edmund husserl and phennomenology*

one focuses on the ________ described by Brentano

*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - intentionality

focuses on the essences of mental processes. he referred to it as ________ ___________

*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - pure phenomenology

second focusses on _________ _________- the processes a person experiences

*edmund husserl and phennomenology* - subjective experience

the important aspect of the mind was not what was in it, but ......

*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - what it did

mental acts are aimed at performing some function and incorporate something outside of itself (which he called ......)

*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - *intentionality*

he employed *phenomenological introspection*-

*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - introspective analysis of intact, meaningful experiences

studies should emphasize the ________ _______

*franz clemens brentano: act of psychology* - mind's processes

he described how the elements combine by using the law of contiguity as many others had done before

*law of contiguity*

measure of differences in reaction time

*mental chronometry*

used a method developed by Franciscus Donders

*mental chronometry*

although the nervous system doesn't cause mental events, it can be used t explain some of their characteristics

*neurological correlates of mental events*

Titchenner referred to himself as a .........- environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, which are independent of each other

*neurological correlates of mental events* - *psychophysical parallelist*

arrangements not experiments before can be produced

*perception and attention*

the interaction of these factors makeup the person's perceptual field

*perception and attention*

the part of this field the person ........

*perception and attention* - *attends to* is apperceived

elements which are attended to can be arranged and rearranged as the person wills

*perception and attention* - *creative synthesis*

*apperception* (selective attention) is __________ and ________

*perception and attention* - active and voluntary

these associations form a core or a context

*the context theory of meaning*

what gives sensations and events meaning is the images and events which the sensation has been associated contiguously in the past

*the context theory of meaning*

the cataloging of the basic mental elements that make up conscious experience

*the what was learned through introspection*

accompanied sensations and could be described along three dimensions (_________ _______ of ________)

*two basic types of mental experience: feelings* - (tridimensional theory of feelings)

excitement- ___________

*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - calm

sensations occurred when a sense organ is stimulated and the ........

*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - impulse reaches the brain

described in terms of ______ (visual, auditory, etc.), ____ (loudness, brightness, etc.), and ______ (pitch, hue, etc.)

*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - modality - intensity - quality

strain- _____________

*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* - relaxation

pleasantness- _____________

*two basic types of mental experience: sensations* -unpleasantness

_________ and data are events in human consciousness as they occurred

*two types of experience* - immediate experiences

this was to be the subject matter of psychology

*two types of experience* - immediate psychology

________ ________ and data are obtained via measuring devices and thus its not direct

*two types of experience* - mediate experience

this is what other sciences were based on

*two types of experience* - mediate experiences

higher mental processes could be deuced from the study of culture such as social customs, myths, history, morals, language, art, law

*wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in human culture*

culminated in his 10-volume work "cultural psychology" (................)

*wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in human culture* - Völkerpsychologie

he only sought to _______ _______ _______ or the structure of the mind

- describe mental experience

the _____ answered the questions of how the elements combined

- how

wundt did not believe that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally; they were reflected in _______ ________

- human culture

therefore, the school was called ......

- structuralism

the ______ involved the neurological correlates of mental events

- why

psychological causality (prediction) was not possible

* physical causality versus psychological causality*

proposed that societal living requires that we give meanings to our own sensations

Hans Vaihinger: as if

we do that by inventing terms, concepts, and theories and then acting "as if" they were true

Hans Vaihinger: as if

physical causality is a reality because events could be predicted on the basis of preceding conditions

* physical causality versus psychological causality*

researched attention, sensation/perception, reaction time

Wilhelm Wundt

school:

defined as a group of individuals who share common assumptions, work on common problems, and use common methods

all sciences are based on ________-

experiences

passive process governed by the stimulation present, the physical makeup of the person, and the person's past experience

perception