Chapter 9: Late Adulthood

The economics of late adulthood

People who were well-off in young adulthood remain so in late adulthood Those who were poor remain poor in late adulthood

Adult day-care facilities

a facility in which elderly individuals receive care only during the day, but spend nights and weekends in their own homes

Skilled-nursing facilities

a facility that provides full-time nursing care for people who have chronic illnesses or are recovering from a temporary medical condition

The notion that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, slow down with age is called __________.

generalized slowing hypothesis

Gerontologists

specialists who study aging

major neurocognitive disorder (dementia)

the most common mental disorder of the elderly, it covers several diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning -chances increases with age

Disengagement theory

the period in late adulthood that marks a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels -on a physical level, elderly people have lower energy levels and slow down progressively. Psychologically they begin to withdraw, showing less interest in the world around them and spending more time looking inward. On a social level, they engage in fewer interactions - both day to day and face to face encounters and participation in society as a whole. -this theory suggests that withdrawal is a mutual process. For example,mandatory retirement ages compel elderly people to withdraw from work, which accelerates disengagement -not all negative. For example, a gradual withdrawal in late adulthood may permit people to become more reflective about their own lives and less constrained by social roles.

Elder abuse

the physical or psychological mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals

Selective optimization

the process by which people concentrate on particular skill areas to compensate for losses in other areas - person may compensate for a hearing loss by using a hearing aid.

continuity theory

the theory suggesting that people need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society in order to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem

Retirement stages

- Honeymoon - engage in a variety of activities like travel they couldn't do previously - Disenchantment - conclude that retirement is not all they thought it would be - Reorientation - reconsider options and become engaged in new, more fulfilling activities - Retirement routine - come to grips with realities of retirement and feel fulfilled - Termination - follows major physical deterioration

2. Body transcendence vs body preoccupation

A period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result or aging. -if they don't cope with these changes, they become preoccupied with their physical deterioration, to the detriment of their personality development -Greta Roach who gave up bowling only in her 90s is an example of coping well with the physical changes of aging

genetic programming theories of aging

theories that suggest that our body's DNA genetic code contains a built-in time limit for the reproduction of human cells -one of the two major theories to explain why we undergo physical deterioration and death. -the theory comes in several variants. One is that the genetic material contains a "death gene" programmed to tell the body to deteriorate and die. Another variant is that cells can duplicate only a curtain number of times. -evidence for this theory comes from owing that human cells permitted to divide in the laboratory can do so successfully only around 50 times. Each time they divide, telomeres, which are tiny, protective areas of the DNA at the tip of the chromosomes, grow shorter. When a cell's telomeres has just about disappeared, the cell stops replication, making it susceptible to damage and producing signs of aging.

Explaining Memory Changes in Old Age

-Environmental factors: ex. Older pole often take prescription drugs that hinder memory and retirees no longer facing job challenged may use memory less. -information processing deficits: the ability to inhibit irrelevant information and thoughts that interfere with problem solving may decrease, and the speed of information processing may decline. -biological factors: memory changes are a result of brain and body deterioration. For instance, declines in episodic memory may be related to the deterioration of the frontal lobes of the brain or a reduction in estrogen.

taste and smell in late adulthood

-both sense become less discriminating, causing food to be less appetizing than it was perviously -the tongue loses taste buds over time, making food less tastes. The olfactory bulbs in the brain shrivel. Because fast depends on smell, thus makes food taste even blander -because food does not taste as good, people eat less and open the door to malnutrition. They may also over salt their foods, thereby increasing their risk of hypertension, or high blood pressure, one of the most common health problems.

Levinson' Final Season: The Winter of Life

-he looks at the process that can lead to personality change as we grow old -during a transition stage people come to view themselves as entering late adulthood - or ultimately being old. -people in late adulthood can serve as resources to younger individuals, and they may find that they are viewed as "venerated elders" whose advice is sought and relied upon.

hearing in late adulthood

-hearing loss may hasten cognitive decline. The struggle to understand what is being said can shunt mental resources away from processing information, causing difficulties in remembering and understanding information.

Sexuality in late adulthood

-increasing evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s-90s. -2 major factors determine whether an elderly person will engage in sexual activity. One is good physical and mental health. The other is previous regular sexual activity -some research shows that having sex regularly is associated within an increased life span -testosterone declines during adulthood by approximately 30-40% from the late 40s to the early 70s. It takes a longer time and more stimulation, for men to get a full erection. The refractory period may last one or more days. -women's vaginas become thin and inelastic, and they produce less natural lubrication, making intercourse more difficult.

Wellness in late adulthood

-people lifestyles choices may raise or lower their chances of coming down with a disease -economic well-being also plays a role. For instance, as at all stages of life, living in poverty restricts access to medical care. Even relatively well-off people may have difficulties finding health care. -psychological factors play an important role in determining susceptibility to illness. For example, a sense of control over one's environment, such as making choices involving everyday matters, leads to a better psychological state and superior health outcomes. -people can enhance their physical well-being and longevity simply by doing what people of all ages should do: eat wisely, exercise, and avoid obvious threats to health such as smoking. The goal of medical and social professionals is now to extend to people's active life spans, the amount of time they remain healthy and able to enjoy their lives.

internal aging

-the brain becomes smaller and lighter. As it shrinks it pulls away from the skull; the space between thee brain and skull doubles from age 20 to age 70. The brain uses less oxygen and glucose, and blood flow is reduced. The number or neurons, or brain cells, declines in some parts of the brain, although not as much as was once thought. -the reduced flow of blood in the brain is due in part to the heart's reduced ability to pump blood through hardening and shrinking blood vessels. -other bodily systems also work at lower capacity. The respiratory system is less efficient, and the digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system. Thereby increasing the incidence of constipation. -some hormones are produced at lower levels -muscle fibers decrease both in size and in amount, and they become less efficient at using oxygen from the bloodstream and storing nutrients. -these changes occur earlier in people who have less healthy lifestyles. For example, smoking accelerates decline in cardiovascular capacity at any age.

Common Physical Disorders

-the leading cause of death in elderly people are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Because aging weakens the immune system, older adults are also more susceptible to infectious diseases. -arthritis and hypertension

Vision in late adulthood

-the lens becomes less transparent, allow in only a third as much light to reach the retina at 60 as at 20. The optic nerve also becomes less efficient in transmitting nerve impulses. As a result, vision declines along several dimensions. We see distant objects less well, need more light to see clearly, and take longer to adjust from dark to light and vice versa. -several eye diseases become more common in late adulthood. For example, cataracts (cloudy or opaque areas on the lens of the eye that interfere with the passage of light) frequently develop. If cataracts is left untreated, the lens becomes milky white and blindness results. Glaucoma is another disease. -the most common cause of blindness in people older than 60 is age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which affects the macula, a yellowish area near the retina at which visual perception is most acute. When a portion of the macula thins and degenerates, the eyesight gradually deteriorates.

Outward signs of aging

-the most obvious is the hair, which usually becomes distinctly gray and eventually white, and may thin out -the face and other parts of the body become wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and collagen, the protein that forms the basic fibers of body tissue. -many people become shorter by as much as 4 inches, partially because of changes in posture, but mostly because the cartilage in the disks of the backbone becomes thinner. This is particularly true for women, who are more susceptible than men to osteoporosis, or thinning of the bones, largely a result of reduced estrogen production. -osteoporosis is a primary cause of broken bones among older people -double standard between aging in women and men

Stages of adjusting to widowhood

1) Preparation - spouses prepare ahead of time for eventual death of partner 2) Grief and mourning - Immediate reaction to the death of a spouse. May last for years 3) Adaptation - Widowed individual starts a new life

Peck's Developmental Tasks

1. Redefinition of self versus preoccupation with work role 2. Body transcendence versus body preoccupation 3. Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation

Alzheimer's Disease ______________, leads to deaths of 100,000 people every year in the US and affects nearly healed of all people older than age 85

A progressive brain disorder

Institutionalism

A psychological state in which people in nursing homes develops apathy, indifference, and lack of caring about themselves -is brought about in part by learned helplessness a believe that one has no control over ones environment -can be deadly. When people entering nursing homes in late adulthood, they lose control over their most basic activities.

Models of successful aging include

Activity theory, continuity theory, and selective optimization

Social support

Assistance and comfort supplied by another person or a network of caring, interested people -a social support network can offer emotional support by lending a sympathetic ear and providing a sounding board of concerns.

The most common cause of blindness in people older than 60 is ________

Cataracts

One problem with conducting cross-sectional research h on aging and cognition is that this method does not take into consideration ______________, the influences attributable to growing out in a particular era

Cornet effects

According to Erikson, individuals in late adulthood engage in looking back over their lives, evaluating their experiences and coming to terms with decisions. This is also known as

Ego integrity versus despair

Memory

Episodic memories: racket to specific life experiences, such as when you first visited NY. Semantic memories: general knowledge and facts such as the capital of North Dakota Implicit memories: memories shout which people are not consciously aware, such as how to ride a bike. -memory capacity changes during old age. For instance, short-term memory slips gradually until ago 70, when the decline becomes more pronounced.

Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage

Erikson's final stage of life, characterized by a process of looking back over one's life, evaluating it, and coming to terms with it -people who are successful in this stage of development experience satisfaction and accomplishment (integrity). When people achieve integrity, they feel they have fulfilled the possibilities that have come their way in life, and they have few regrets. -other people look back on their lives with dissatisfaction. They may feel that they have missed important opportunities and have not accomplished what they wished. Such individuals may be unhappy, depressed, angry, or despondent over what they have failed to do with their lives (despair)

____________theories of aging suggest that our DNA contains a built-in-time limit for reproduction of human cells

Genetic programming

After retiring from work, people often pass through a series of stages including

Honeymoon, disenchantment, reorientation, and termination

Autobiographical memory

Memories about one's own life -Pollyanna principle in which pleasant memories are more likely to be recalled than unpleasant memories. Similarity, people tend to forget information that is not congruent with the way they currently see themselves. Thus a strict parent who forgets that she got drunk at her high school prom is making her memories fit her current conception of herself. -people in late adulthood also use information that they recall in different ways from younger individuals when they make decisions. For example, they process information more slowly and ,at make poorer judgments when complex rules are involved, and they focus more on emotional content than younger people.

Coping with Aging: Neugarten's Study

Neugarten found 4 different personality types: - disintegrated and disorganized personalities: some people are unable to accept aging and experience despair as they grow olde. They are often found in nursing homes or hospitals - passive-depending personalities: other become fearful-of falling ill, of the futures, of their own inabilities to cope. They are so fearful that they may seek help from family and care providers, even when they don't need it - defended personalities: others respond to the fear of aging quite differently - by trying to stop it in its tracks. They may attempt to act young, exercising vigorously and engaging in youthful activists. Unfortunately, they may set unrealistic expectations and run the risk of disappointment as a result - integrated personalities: the most successful individuals cope comfortably with again. They accept it with a sense of self-dignity. (Where a majority of the people fall)

According to the terminology used by demographers, people between the ages of 75 and 84 years are called

Old old

When it comes to autobiographical memories, older individuals, like younger individuals, follow the ________, in that they are more likely to remember pleasant memories

Pollyanna principle

Ageism

Prejudice and discrimination directed at older people -many attitude studies find that older adults are viewed more negatively than younger ones on a variety of traits, particularly those relating to general competence and attractiveness -aging produces consequences that vary greatly from one person to the next. Although some elderly people are in fact physically frail, have cognitive difficulties and require constant care, others are vigorous and independent.

The first stage of adjustment to death of a spouse is

Preparation

_____________aging involved universal and irreversible changes that, as a result of genetic programming occur as pole get older

Primary

The relationship between environmental factors and intellectual skills suggest that with ________ older people can maintain their mental abilities.

Stimulation, practice, and motivation

It is likely that the gap in technology skills between younger and older adults will decrease as _____

Technology use continues to expand to the general society

Life Expectancy

The average age of death for members of a population -average life expectancy is one the rise. In 1776 it was 35yrs. By the early 1900s it was 47 years. And predictions that it will continue to rise steadily possibly reaching 80 by the year 2050 -reasons: health and sanitation are generally better, with many diseases such as small pox, wiped out entirely. There are now vaccines and preventative measures for many diseases that used to kill young people, such as measles and mumps. Working conditions are better and products are safer. Many people are making healthful lifestyle choices such as keeping their weight down, eating fresh fruit and vegetables, and exercising - all of which can extend their active life spans, the years they spend in health and enjoyment in life.

Which of the following is true regarding brain development and aging

The brain becomes smaller and lighter

Postponing Aging

The most promising avenues: -telomere therapy -drug therapy -unlocking longevity genes -reducing free radicals through antioxidant drugs -restricting calories -the bionic solution: rep,acing worn-out organs: transplants *one major problem remains: transplants often fail because the body rejects the foreign tissue

3. Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation

The period in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death -if they see these contributions to society they have made, as lasting beyond their own lives, they will experience ego transcendence. If not, they may become preoccupied with asking whether their lives has value and worth to society.

Plasticity

The relationship ship between environmental factors and intellectual skills suggests that with stimulation, practice, and motivation, older people can maintain their mental abilities. Such plasticity illustrates that the changes that occur in intellectual abilities during last adulthood are not fixed. -use it or lose it

1. redefinition of self versus preoccupation with work role

The theory that those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work roles or occupations -peck suggests that people must adjust their values to place less emphasis on themselves as workers or professionals and more on attributes that don't involve work, such as being a grandparent or gardener

Continuing - care community

a community that offers an environment in which all the residents are of retirement age or older and need various levels of care -tend to be fairly homogeneous in terms of religious, racial, and ethic backgrounds, and they are often organized by private or religious organizations.

complicated grief

a form of unrelenting mourning that continues sometimes for months and even years

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities -the first sign is forgetfulness. A person may have trouble recalling words during a conversation or may return to the grocery store several times after having already done the shopping -biological, Alzheimer's occurs when production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein - which normally promotes the production and growth of neurons - goes awry, creating large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cells. The brain shrinks, and several areas of the hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes show deterioration. Furthermore, certain neurons die, which leads to a shortage of various neurotransmitters, such as ACh -genetics play a role. Most evidence suggest that Alzheimer's is an inherited disorder, but no genetic factors such as high blood pressure or diet may increase susceptibility -one study found that the lower levels of linguistic ability in the early 20s are associated with declines in cognitive capabilities resulting from Alzheimer's munch later in life. -there is no cure, only medication to help symptoms.

primary aging (senescence)

aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic programming, occur as people get older

secondary aging

changes in physical and cognitive functioning that are as a result of illness, health habits, and other individual differences, but are not the result of increased age itself and are not inevitable -although physical and cognitive changes of secondary aging are common, they are potentially avoidable and can sometimes be reserved.

Wisdom

expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life -knowledge derived from intelligence is related to the here and now, wisdom is more timeless.

Life review

the point in life in which people examine and evaluate their lives -is trigger by increasingly obvious prospect of death. People look back on their lives, remembering and reconsidering what has happened to them. -usually leads to better understanding of the past. People may resolve lingering problems and conflicts with others, such as an estrangement from a child, and they may feel they can face their current lives with greater serenity -offers other benefits such as: sense of mutuality, a feeling of interconnectedness with others. It can also source of social interaction as older adults share their experiences with others -reminiscence may even have cognitive benefits, improving memory. -sometimes can produce declines in psychological functioning. If people become obsessive about the past, reliving old insults, and mistakes that cannot be rectified, they may end up feeling guilt, depression, and anger against acquaintance who may not even still be alive.

Activity theory

the theory suggesting that successful aging occurs when people maintain the interests, activities, and social interactions with which they were involved during middle age

Generalized slowing hypothesis

the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient -as a consequence, slowing occurs throughout the body, including the processing of both simple and complex stimuli, and the transmission of commands to the muscles.

Peripheral slowing hypothesis

the theory that suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system with increasing age -because of this, it takes longer for information from the environment to reach the brain and for commands from the brain to be transmitted to the muscles

wear-and-tear theories of aging

the theory that the mechanical functions of the body simply wear out with age -some wear and tear theories suggest that the body's constant manufacture of energy to fuel its activities creates by-products. These by-products, combines with the toxins and threats of everyday life, eventually reach such high levels that they impart the body's normal functioning. The ultimate result is determination and death. -one specific by-product that has been related to aging includes free radicals, electrically charged molecules or atoms that are produced by the cells of the body. Because of their electrical charge, free radicals may cause negative effects on other cells of the body. A great deal of research suggest that oxygen-free radicals may be implicated in a number of age-related problems, including cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.

Age stratification theories

the view that an unequal distribution of economic resources, power, and privilege exists among people at different stages of the life course -helps explain why aging is viewed more positively in less industrialized societies.