Chapter 9- Lifespan Development

Menarche

A female's first menstrual period, termed menarche, typically occurs around age 12 or 13, but menarche may take place as early as age 9 or 10 or as late as age 16 or 17.

Forma operational stage

At the beginning of adolescence, children enter the formal operational stage. In terms of problem solving, the formal operational adolescent is much more systematic and logical than the concrete operational child. Formal operational thought reflects the ability to think logically even when dealing with abstract concepts or hypothetical situations. In contrast to the concrete operational child, the formal operational adolescent explains friendship by emphasizing more global and abstract characteristics, such as mutual trust, empathy, loyalty, consistency, and shared beliefs. Formal operational thought emerges only gradually. Formal operational thought continues to increase in sophistication throughout adolescence and adulthood. Although an adolescent may deal effectively with abstract ideas in one domain of knowledge, his thinking may not reflect the same degree of sophistication in other areas.

Conventional morality

At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. • Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. • Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Pre conventional morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. • Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Object permanence

By the end of the sensorimotor stage, children acquire a new cognitive understanding, called object permanence. Object permanence is the understanding that an object continues to exist even if it can't be seen. Now the infant will actively search for a ball that she has watched roll out of sight. Infants gradually acquire an understanding of object permanence as they gain experience with objects, as their memory abilities improve, and as they develop mental representations of the world, which Piaget called schemas.

Centration

Centration refers to the tendency to focus, or center, on only one aspect of a situation, usually a perceptual aspect. In doing so, the child ignores other relevant aspects of the situation. Ex: When Laura was 5, we tried this task with her. First, we showed her two identical glasses, each containing exactly the same amount of liquid. Laura easily recognized the two amounts of liquid as being the same. Then, while Laura watched intently, we poured the liquid from one of the glasses into a third container that was much taller and narrower than the others. "Which container," we asked, "holds more liquid?" Like any other preoperational child, Laura answered confidently, "The taller one!" Even when we repeated the procedure, reversing the steps over and over again, Laura remained convinced that the taller container held more liquid than did the shorter one. Because of centration, the child cannot simultaneously consider the height and the width of the liquid in the container. Instead, the child focuses on only one aspect of the situation, the height of the liquid.

Secure vs. Insecure attachment

During the first year of life, the emotional bond that forms between the infant and her caregivers, especially her parents, is called attachment . As conceptualized by attachment theorist John Bowlby and psychologist Mary D. Salter Ainsworth, attachment relationships serve important functions throughout infancy and, indeed, the lifespan. Ideally, the parent or caregiver functions as a secure base for the infant, providing a sense of comfort and security-- a safe haven from which the infant can explore and learn about the environment. Generally, when parents are consistently warm, responsive, and sensitive to their infant's needs, the infant develops a secure attachment to her parents. The infant's expectation that her needs will be met by her caregivers is the most essential ingredient to forming a secure attachment to them. And, cross-cultural studies have confirmed that sensitivity to the infant's needs is associated with secure attachment in diverse cultures. In contrast, insecure attachment may develop when an infant's parents are neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to his moods or behaviors. Insecure attachment seems to reflect am ambivalent or detached emotional relationship between an infant and his parents

Erik Erikson's basics ideas

Erikson's (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson (1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generatively vs. Stagnation 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Conservation

Ex: When Laura was 5, we tried this task with her. First, we showed her two identical glasses, each containing exactly the same amount of liquid. Laura easily recognized the two amounts of liquid as being the same. Then, while Laura watched intently, we poured the liquid from one of the glasses into a third container that was much taller and narrower than the others. "Which container," we asked, "holds more liquid?" Like any other preoperational child, Laura answered confidently, "The taller one!" Even when we repeated the procedure, reversing the steps over and over again, Laura remained convinced that the taller container held more liquid than did the shorter one. This classic demonstration illustrates the preoperational child's inability to understand conservation. The principle of conservation holds that two equal physical quantities remain equal even if the appearance of one is changed, as long as nothing is added or subtracted. Because of centration, the child cannot simultaneously consider the height and the width of the liquid in the container. Instead, the child focuses on only one aspect of the situation, the height of the liquid. And because of irreversibility, the child cannot cognitively reverse the series of events, mentally returning the poured liquid to its original container. Thus, she fails to understand that the two amounts of liquid are still the same.

Adolescent growth spurt

Females are typically about two years ahead of males in terms of physical and sexual maturation. Ex: The period of marked acceleration in weight and height gains, called the adolescent growth spurt, occurs about two years earlier in females than in males.

Post conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. • Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. • Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

*Strange situation technique

How do researchers measure attachment? The most commonly used procedure, called the strange situation, was devised by Ainsworth. The Strange Situation is typically used with infants who are between 1 and 2 years old. In this technique, the baby and his mother are brought into an unfamiliar room with a variety of toys. A few minutes later, a stranger enters the room. The mother stays with the child for a few moments, then departs, leaving the child alone with the stranger. After a few minutes, the mother returns, spends a few minutes in the room, leaves, and returns again. Through a one-way window, observers record the infant's behavior throughout this sequence of separations and reunions. Psychologists assess attachment by observing the infant's behavior toward his mother during the Strange Situation procedure. When his mother is present, the securely attached infant will use her as a "secure base" from which to explore the new environment, periodically returning to her side. He will show distress when his mother leaves the room and will greet her warmly when she returns. A securely attached baby is easily soothed by his mother. In contrast, an insecurely attached infant is less likely to explore the environment, even when her mother is present. In the Strange Situation, insecurely attached infants may appear either vary anxious or completely indifferent. Such infants tend to ignore or avoid their mothers when they are present. Some insecurely attached infants become extremely distressed when their mothers leave the room. When insecurely attached infants are reunited with their mothers, they are hard to soothe and may resist their mothers' attempts to comfort them.

Easy vs. Difficult temperament

Infants come into the world with very distinct and consistent behavioral styles. Some babies are consistently calm and easy to soothe. Other babies are fussy, irritable, and hard to comfort. Some babies are active and outgoing; others seem shy and wary of new experiences. Psychologists refer to these inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way as an infant's temperament. Chess and Thomas rated young infants on a variety of characteristics, such as activity level, mood, regularity in sleeping and eating, and attention span. They found that about two-thirds of the babies could be classified into one of three broad temperamental patterns: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. About a third of the infants were characterized as average babies because they did not fit neatly into one of these three categories. Easy babies readily adapt to new experiences, generally display positive moods and emotions, and have regular sleeping and eating patterns. Ex: They adapted to change, such as new food or a new school quickly. They showed a good mood most of the time, and smiled often. Difficult babies tend to be intensely emotional, are irritable and fussy, and cry a lot. They also tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns. Ex: They are slow to adapt to change, and need more time to get used to new food or people.

Motherese

Just as infants seem to be biologically programmed to learn language, parents seem to be biologically programmed to encourage language development by the way they speak to infants and toddlers. People in every culture, especially parents, use a style of speech called motherese, or infant-direct speech, with babies. Motherese is characterized by very distinct pronunciation, a simplified vocabulary, short sentences, high pitch, and exaggerated intonation and expression. Content is restricted to topics that are familiar to the child, and "baby talk" is often used--simplified words such as "go bye bye" and "night-night." Questions are often asked, encouraging a response from the infant. Research by psychologist Anne Fernald has shown that infants prefer infant-directed speech to language spoken in an adult conversational style.

Zone of proximal development

One of Vygotsky's (Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of a theory of human cultural and bio-social development commonly referred to as cultural-historical psychology, and leader of the Vygotsky Circle) important ideas was his notion of the zone of proximal development. This refers to the gap between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent. Note that the word "Proximal" means "nearby", indicating that the assistance provided goes just slightly beyond the child's current abilities. Such guidance can help "stretch" the child's cognitive abilities to new levels. Cross-cultural studies have shown that cognitive development is strongly influenced by the skills that are valued and encouraged in a particular environment, such as the ability to weave, hunt, or collaborate with others. Such findings suggest that Piaget's stages are not as universal and culture-free as some researchers had once believed.

High vs. Low reactive

Other temperamental patterns have been identified. For example, after decades of research, Jerome Kagan has classified temperament in terms of reactivity. High-reactive infants react intensely to new experiences, strangers, and novel objects. They tend to be tense, fearful, and inhibited. Ex: When a high-reactive infant met his extended family for the first time, he was extremely tense and stayed close to the side of his mom. At the opposite pole are low-reactive infants, who tend to be calmer, uninhibited, and bolder. Sociable rather than shy, low-reactive infants are more likely to show interest than fear when exposed to new people, experiences, and objects. Ex: A low reactive infant showed a lot of interest when he was first introduced to his fellow playmates in his class.

Slow to warm up

Slow-to-warm-up babies have a low activity level, withdraw from new situations and people, and adapt to new experiences very gradually. Ex: If you were to introduce a slow to warm up baby into a new environment, such as a playgroup or a preschool, that child would adapt very gradually.

Egocentrism

The thinking of preoperational children often displays egocentrism. By egocentrism, Piaget did not mean selfishness or conceit. Rather, egocentric children lack the ability to consider events from another person's point of view. Thus, the young child genuinely thinks that Grandma would like a new Beanie Baby or a spiderman video for her upcoming birthday because that's what he wants. Egocentric thought is also operating when the child silently nods his head in answer to Grandpa's question on the telephone.

Symbolic thought

The hallmark of preoperational thought is the child's capacity to engage in symbolic thought. Symbolic thought refers to the ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world. One indication of the expanding capacity for symbolic thought is the child's impressive gains in language during this stage. The child's increasing capacity for symbolic thought is also apparent in her use of fantasy and imagination while playing. A discarded box becomes a spaceship, a house, or a fort, as children imaginatively take on the roles of different characters. In doing so, children imitate (or try to) actions they have mentally symbolized from situations observed days, or even weeks, earlier. Still, the preoperational child's understanding of symbols remains immature. A 2-year-old shown a picture of a flower, for example, may try to smell it. A young child may be puzzled by the notion that a map symbolizes an actual location. In short, preoperational children are still actively figuring out the relationship between symbols and the actual objects they represent.

*Sensorimotor stage

The most influential theory of cognitive development is that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Originally trained as a biologist, Piaget combined a boundless curiosity about the nature of the human mind with a gift of scientific observation. Piaget believed that children actively try to make sense out of their environment rather than passively soaking up information about the world. To Piaget, many of the "cute" things children say actually reflect their sincere attempts to make sense of their world. According to Piaget, children progress through four distinct cognitive stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 4; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to age 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins during adolescence and continues into adulthood. As a child advances to a new stage, his thinking is qualitatively different from that of the previous stage. In other words, each new stage represents a fundamental shift in how the child thinks and understands the world. The sensorimotor stage extends from birth until about 2 years of age. During this stage, infants acquire knowledge about the world through actions that allow them to directly experience and manipulate objects. Infants discover a wealth of very practical sensory knowledge, such as what objects look like and how they taste, feel, smell, and sound. Infants in this stage also expand their practical knowledge about motor actions-- reaching, grasping, pushing, pulling, and pouring. In the process, they gain a basic understanding of the effects their own actions can produce, such as pushing a button to turn on the television or knocking over a pile of blocks to make them crash and tumble. At the beginning of the sensorimotor stage, the infant's motto seems to be, " Out of sight, out of mind." An object exists only if she can directly sense it. For example, if a 4-month-old infant knocks a ball underneath the couch and it rolls out of sight, she will not look for it. Piaget interpreted this response to mean that to the infant, the ball no longer exists.

Primary vs. secondary sex char.

The physical changes of puberty fall into two categories. Internally, puberty involves the development of the primary sex characteristics, which are the sex organs that are directly involved in reproduction. Ex: The female's uterus and the male's testes enlarge in puberty. Externally, development of the secondary sex characteristics, which are not directly involved in reproduction, signal increasing sexual maturity. Secondary sex characteristics include changes in height, weight, and body shape; the appearance of body hair and voice changes; and in girls, breast development.

Irreversibility

The preoperational child's thought is also characterized by irreversibility and centration. Irreversibility means that the child cannot mentally reserve a sequence of events or logical operations back to the starting point. Ex: The child doesn't understand that adding "3 plus 1" and adding "1 plus 3" refer to the same logical operation.

Preoperational stage

The preoperational stage lasts from roughly age 2 to age 7. In Piaget's theory, the world operations refers to logical mental activities. Thus, the "preoperational" stage is a prelogical stage.

Renee Baillargeon's research

To test for object permanence, Piaget would show the infant an object, cover it with a cloth, and then observe whether the infant tried to reach under the cloth for the object. Obviously, such a response requires the infant to have a certain level of motor skill development. Using this procedure, Piaget found that it wasn't until an infant was about 9 months old that she behaved as if she understood that an object continued to exist after it was hidden. Even at this age, Piaget maintained, an infant's understanding of object permanence was immature and would not be fully developed for another year or so. But what if the infant "knew" that the object was under the cloth but simply lacked the physical coordination to reach for it? How could you test this hypothesis? Rather than using manual tasks to assess object permanence and other cognitive abilities, psychologist Renee Baillargeon has used visual tasks. Baillargeon's research is based on the premise that infants, like adults, will look longer at "surprising" events that appear to contradict their understanding of the world. In this research paradigm, the infant first watches an expected event, which is consistent with the understanding that is being tested. Then, the infant is shown an unexpected event. If the unexpected event violates the infant's understanding of physical principles, he should be surprised and look longer at the unexpected event than the expected event. Using variations of this basic experimental procedure, Baillargeon and her colleagues have shown that infants as young as 2 and a half months of age display object permanence. This is more than six months earlier than the age at which Piaget believed infants first showed evidence of object permanence.

Concrete operational stage

With the beginning of the concrete operational stage, at around age 7, children become capable of true logical thought. They are much less egocentric in their thinking, can reverse mental operations, and can focus simultaneously on two aspects of a problem. In short, they understand the principle of conservation. When presented with two rows of pennies, each row equally spaced, concrete operational children understand that the number of pennies in each row remains the same even when the spacing between the pennies in one row is increased. As the name of this stage implies, thinking and use of logic tend to be limited to concrete reality-- to tangible objects and events. Children in the concrete operational stage often have difficulty thinking logically about hypothetical situations or abstract ideas. Ex: An 8-year old will explain the concept of friendship in very tangible terms, such as, "Friendship is when someone plays with me." In effect, the concrete operational child's ability to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations is limited to his or her personal experiences and actual events.