chapter9cog.psy.

Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x2 + 5x - 7 = 4x2 - 2x + 8?

Analytical

Spreading activation

primes associated concepts.

Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I don't eat lunch today, I will be hungry tonight. Premise 2: I ate lunch today. Conclusion: Therefore, I wasn't hungry tonight. This syllogism is

invalid.

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

According to the hub and spoke model, which area of the brain serves as the hub?

Anterior temporal lobe

Leaving a footprint in the wet sand—with a deep indentation for the heel, a rise for the arch, and each toe clearly identified—is similar to which concept?

Topographic map

From a thinking perspective, when faced with making a decision, the suggestion to "Go with your gut" would emphasize ________, while the suggestion "Take your time" would place emphasis on ________.

Type 1; System 2

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Which of the following is NOT one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model?

Working units

The process of analogical encoding is focused on ________.

finding similarity

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the ____________________ approach to parsing.

garden path

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

group brainstorming.

Which of the following represents a basic level item?

guitar

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they

had a large number of sophisticated language systems.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

imagery requires a special mechanism.

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using

inductive reasoning.

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference.

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.

initial

The validity of a syllogism depends on

its form.

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

laboratory and real-world settings.

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition.

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.

Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using

mental chronometry.

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.

mental walk

Jorge and Bob are neighbors. Jorge loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Jorge's standard probably involves

more exemplars than Bob's.

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described.

The pegword technique is particularly suitable for use when you need to remember items based on their

order.

Utility refers to

outcomes that achieve a person's goals.

According to the situation model of text processing,

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.

Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that

people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.

Ganis and coworkers (2004) used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.

Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the _________________ may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the _________________ is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome.

prefrontal cortex; insula

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard.

In the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ________.

progress

As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT

propositions.

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics.

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement.

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and restructuring.

In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.

rules

Syntax is the

rules for combining words into sentences.

A person who has been diagnosed with ________ dementia has difficulty recognizing both living things and artifacts.

semantic

According to the ___________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.

semantic category

The ___________ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation.

semantic network

According to the concept of ________, when we read a sentence like, "Jorge grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a simulation of Jorge's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.

situation models

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

speech segmentation.

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of ___________ into their network model.

spreading activation

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or Internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the _________________ bias.

status quo

Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.

strong

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming.

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty.

A syllogism is valid if

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.

According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is

the falsification principle.

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

the falsification principle.

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money ($10). Prefrontal cortex activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers.

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (e.g.,, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because

they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.

Luis is taking his girlfriend, Rosa, to a resort town neither one of them has visited. Luis wants to make a good impression on Rosa, so he spends the week before the trip reading about fun places to go while they are there. He also memorizes a map of the small resort town, so he can lead her around without bothering to ask for directions. When they arrive, they first visit a botanical garden. When Rosa says, "Where to next?" Luis conjures a mental image of the map and says, "art museum." Let's assume the garden was six inches due south on the map and that it took Luis four seconds to scan the map image between the two. After they visit the museum, Luis takes Rosa to a fancy restaurant. On the map, the restaurant was three inches northwest of the museum, so it is most likely that when Luis scanned the image to find the restaurant, the scan took approximately ___________ seconds.

two

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

Comma

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

Connecting the fortress with the tumor

Which of the following does NOT reflect the System 1 approach to thinking as proposed by Kahneman?

Deliberate

Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?

Exemplar

Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

Freedom

________ occurs when a person gives up trying to solve a tough problem and then suddenly comes up with the answer while doing something else.

Incubation

If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?

It cuts the taffy into pieces.

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?

Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman.

Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?

Parallel distributed processing theory

Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?

Representation

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the _________________ problem.

Russian marriage

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?

SKY

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used ___________ in playing the game.

inner audition

In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that

it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.

According to the typicality effect

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.

The radiation problem can be solved using

representation and restructuring.

Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because

visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved.

when semantics

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says, "My grandfather smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his argument involves framing.

sample size.

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

search.

One criticism of the embodied approach is that it doesn't explain how humans can recognize ________.

abstractions

The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as

analogical transfer.

Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that _________________ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.

anaphoric

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference.

Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing

at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

availability heuristic.

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ___________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ___________ level of categories reflects people's everyday experience.

basic

Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with

boat _______ - car ________.

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.

bread and butter

Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) ____________________ inference.

causal

Measuring the amount of time a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ________.

chronometry

Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."

concepts

onsider the following syllogism: If it's a robin then it is a bird. It is a bird. Therefore, it is a robin. In the example above, "Therefore, it is a robin" is a _________________ of a _________________ syllogism.

conclusion; conditional

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights.

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword.

An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _________________ reasoning.

deductive

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.

definitional

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.

distributed

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node.

Which of the following would be in a basic level category?

truck

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices.

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Which of the following activities would require Type 2 cognitive processing?

Choosing an entree from a menu

A spatial imagery test measures a person's capacity with imaging which of the following?

Layout

Which of the following lies at the foundation of a connectionist network?

Learning

Subgoals serve a key role in which of the following?

Means-end analysis

Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside

a bumblebee.

The propositional approach may use any of the following EXCEPT

a spatial layout.

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the _________________.

belief bias

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

cake mug

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people

can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side.

If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the ___________ approach to categorization.

exemplar

Josiah is trying to decide whether to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of

expected emotion.

Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion.

Mental imagery involves

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.

There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,

he should use his coin in the small machine.

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they

invent a sign language themselves.

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a poodle and the other a German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

is a breed of dog that is hairless and teacup-sized.

Kosslyn's island experiment used the ___________ procedure.

mental scanning

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object.

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by

the framing effect.

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on

the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.

Trinh is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., fish sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Trinh is using ___________ to organize her memories.

the method of loci

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for ____________________ because of the ____________________ effect.

trial 1; word frequency

Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Terrell was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100 percent sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Terrell's first response to the debate will most likely be

"Goodman answered the question on job creation very well."

Which of the following is NOT a factor in prosody?

Semantics

"3x + 9 = 16" is a___________representation.

propositional

The constraint-based approach to parsing states that

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.

According to the concept of topographical mapping, which of the following stimuli encountered on a beach trip will activate the farthest forward in the visual cortex?

A pink beach ball on your towel

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

A turtle is an animal.

In an effort to get his sister Sharon to vaccinate her young children, Frank compiled the results from many scientific research studies that show the long-term health benefits of childhood vaccines. Yet when Frank presented the information to Sharon, she refused to believe him, stating that the research was clearly faked by large pharmaceutical companies. Sharon not only said that vaccines are risky but also now claims they are poisonous. What occurred in the conversation between Frank and Sharon?

Backfire effect

Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?

Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?

If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night.

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of_________________ research.

In vivo problem solving

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

Meaning dominance

which of the following correctly pairs a problem-solving stage with a process under Basadur's model?

Problem Solving: Planning

Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?

Prototype

The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following?

Rationality

Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?

Semantics and lexicons are equal in scope.

According to the connectionist model, which of the following is impacted by connection weight?

Synapse activity

Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which region of the brain? Parietal lobe

Temporal lobe

Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning. Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow.

The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations.

Which of the following theories on conceptual representation combines both sensory and motor experiences?

The embodied approach

prototypicality.

The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is

Which of the following is a nonverbal component of communication?

Theory of mind

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Thought is always accompanied by imagery.

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.

The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when

typicality