Chapters 9 & 10

(EQ) Asch line-length judgment task (1951)

37% of responses were conforming ones 75% conformed at least once (note: if participants were alone, they did not make mistakes) *Why was conformity observed:* • normative social influence

(EQ) Results of Milgram's obedience studies

62.5 % obedience rate (administered the maximum possible shock of 450 volts)

conformity

A change in behavior, belief, or both to conform to a group norm as a result of real or imagined group pressure. • humans have a strong tendency to conform

(EQ) panic disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurrent panic attacks. (EQ) ie sweating profusely, her heart rate increases rapidly, she complains of chest pains and dizziness, and feels someone is having a heart attack

(EQ) agoraphobia

Fear of being in places where escape would be difficult and/or embarrassing

obedience

Following the commands of a person in authority

"Fear of Fear" hypothesis

keep yourself out of a situations causing anxiety and its symptoms (ie you avoid a place because it gives you a panic attack... you are more afraid of the panic attack than the place)

Why does the low-ball technique work?

many of us feel obligated to go through with the deal after we have agreed to the earlier deal (request) even if the deal has changed for the worse i.e. car dealership giving you a good first deal, then taking it away

Milgram's follow-up survey

most participants in the obedience experiments had positive feelings about their participation (84% were glad to have participated, and only 1.3 percent said that they were sorry they had) psychiatrist found no harm in any of the participants he interviewed.

Sherif 's study of conformity

participants in completely dark rooms were exposed to a stationary point of light and asked to estimate the distance the light moved Thanks to an illusion called the *autokinetic effect*, a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room because there is no frame of reference and our eyes spontaneously move

(EQ) The Asch line study demonstrated that...

people will often conform to the group even if they disagree with them

Why does the that's-not-all technique work?

seller has made a concession (the bonus options), so shouldn't you reciprocate by taking the offer, complying? you are more likely to comply and take the deal after all of the build up than if this "better" deal were offered directly

What does the Milgram experiment teach us?

situational social forces impact what we say we will do and what we actually do (when in the situation, we may act in the opposite way)

social psychology

study of how we influence one another's behavior and thinking

social loafing

tendency to exert less effort when working in a group toward a common goal than when individually working toward the goal (because the responsibility for a task is diffused across all members of the group) • increases as the size of the group increases • decreases when each group member feels more responsible for his contribution to the group effort

When will people not conform - *Situational Factors*

(1) *It's difficult to be a minority of one, but not two*: amount of conformity drops considerably if just one of the confederate participants gives an answer—right or wrong—that differs from the rest of the group (unanimity is broken) (2) *mode of responding (voting aloud versus secret ballot)*: conformity drops dramatically if participants do not have to respond aloud (3) *more conformity is observed from a person who is of lesser status than the other group members or who is attracted to the group and wants to be a part of it* (ie a probationary period for attaining group membership)

Milgram's follow-up research

(1) Milgram replicated study - 65% maximal obedience rate (2) wall pounding instead of vocal protest - 65% maximal obedience rate (3) no vocal protests or pounding the wall - almost 100% maximal obedience rate

(EQ) Psychopathology - various terms and their meanings

(EQ) insanity is a legal term, rather than psychiatric term

Milgram's Study - Things that don't matter

(note: prestige matters only a little 47.5 obedience rate outside the university) *DID NOT produce lower rates of obedience:* When the participants ("teachers") were females instead of males

(EQ) Why did they $1 group rate the task as enjoyable, but not the $20 group?

*$1 group:* *(EQ)• the $1 was an insufficient justification for lying* • inconsistency between attitude and behavior created cognitive dissonance • to reduce this dissonance, the participants changed their attitude to be that the tasks were fairly enjoyable *$20 group* • a key aspect of cognitive dissonance theory is that we don't suffer dissonance if we have sufficient justification for our behavior (the participants who were paid $20 in the study) or our behavior is coerced.

*Results of Sherif's Study of Conformity*

*1st session:* average of the individual estimates varied greatly *2nd and 3rd sessions:* the individual estimates converged on a common group norm *4th session:* all of the participants in the group were all making the same judgments *Why was conformity observed:* • informational social influence

Why does the foot-in-the-door technique work?

*Consistency* • once we have made a commitment (such as signing a safe-driving petition), we feel pressure to remain consistent (putting up the large ugly sign) with this earlier commitment • behavior on the initial request affects attitude on the second request

Type of conformity observed in Sherif vs. Ash studies

*Sherif Study* • informational social influence • participants needed information because of the illusory nature of the judgment • when a task is ambiguous or difficult and we want to be correct, we look to others for information *Ash Study* • normative social influence • conformity when information about the correct way to proceed is not needed • we go along with the crowd

"Astroten" nurse study

*Study:* participants in this study were nurses on duty alone in a hospital ward and did not even know they were part of a study. Doctor ordered nurses to give a dose exceeding the maximum daily dosage of an unauthorized medication ("Astroten") to an actual patient in the ward *Result:* The "Astroten" study and a survey study with nurses found high rates of obedience in the real world, indicating that it was not just a feeling of experimental obligation that led to Milgram's results. 22 out of 23 nurses blindly obeyed. Demonstrates power of situational forces on obedience.

obedience - pros and cons

*constructive/beneficial:* • to exist, society needs obedience to its laws • young children need to obey their caretakers for their own well-being *atrocities:* • My Lai massacre in Vietnam • Nazi Germany • Jim Jones and Peoples Temple

Freedman & Fraser Study: Foot in the Door Technique

*initial small request:* sign a safe-driving petition *second, larger request:* large ugly sign which said "Drive Carefully" asked to be put in their front yards *result:* majority of the people who had complied with the much smaller request two weeks earlier agreed to have the large, ugly sign put in their yard. The smaller request had served as the "foot in the door."

Milgram's Study - When is obedience lowered?

*produced lower rates of obedience:* b) When the teacher and the learner were in the same room c) When the experimenter was not present in the room d) When the teacher had to keep the learner's hand on the shock plate

DSM-5 strength, criticisms, and practical purpose

*strength:* reliable classifications of disorders/ diagnostic process *criticisms:* casts too wide of a diagnostic net, possibly leading to normal behavior being classified as abnormal. Very culture/Western based. *practical purpose:* health insurance companies require a DSM-5 disorder classification before paying for therapy

(EQ) Cialdini et al: Door in the Face Technique

2 Requests big request: ask to be a Big Brother or Sister at a detention center for two hours per week for two years smaller request: chaperone a group of kids to the zoo Three groups: (1) Control - subject asked two small requests (one to chaperone to a museum and one to the zoo). Both requests were the same size and no concession was made by the subjects since the requester did not concede. (2) Exposure - subject was asked only smaller request only (3) Door-in-the-face - subject was asked and refused first request, then asked a smaller favor *Compliance Results:* Control = 16.7% Exposure = 25% Door-in-the-face = 50%

(EQ) obsessive-compulsive disorder

A disorder in which the person experiences recurrent obsessions or compulsions that are perceived by the person as excessive or unreasonable, but cause significant distress and disruption in the person's daily life. (EQ) • ie Joe is constantly worried about whether his house is safe, and he returns home multiple times a day to re-check that the front door is locked

(EQ) obsession

A persistent intrusive thought, idea, impulse, or image that causes anxiety. i.e. orderliness, disasters/ accidents/ cleanliness

compulsion

A repetitive and rigid behavior that a person feels compelled to perform in order to reduce anxiety. Compulsions are coping mechanisms. i.e. repetitive actions and constant checking/ rituals/ extreme hygiene

(EQ) self-perception theory

A theory developed by Bem that assumes that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them by examining our behavior and the context in which it occurs. According to Bem, we are not trying to reduce cognitive dissonance, but are merely engaged in the normal attribution process. i.e. the $1 group would examine their behavior (lying for $1) and infer that the tasks must have been fairly enjoyable and interesting or else they would not have said that they were for only $1

(EQ) cognitive dissonance theory

A theory developed by Festinger that assumes people have a tendency to change their attitudes to reduce the cognitive discomfort created by inconsistencies between their attitudes and their behavior.

generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person has excessive, global anxiety and worries that he cannot control, occurring more days than not for at least a period of 6 months (*anxiety is chronic and lasts for months*) causes: A person with generalized anxiety disorder may have problems activating GABA (which helps reduce anxiety by reducing neural impulses), and therefore the feelings of anxiety are not reduce

social anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder indicated by a marked and persistent fear of one or more social performance situations in which embarrassment may occur and in which there is exposure to unfamiliar people or scrutiny by others.

(EQ) specific phobia

An anxiety disorder indicated by a marked and persistent fear of specific objects or situations that is excessive and unreasonable. ie snakes/ heights

Gender differences in conformity

Bond and Smith (polarizing sunglasses experiment) (1996) observed: • higher level of conformity for female participants • gender difference in conformity has not narrowed over time

(EQ) door-in-the-face technique

Compliance is gained by starting with a large, unreasonable request that is turned down and following it with a more reasonable, smaller request

(EQ) low-ball technique

Compliance to a costly request is gained by first getting compliance to an attractive, less costly request but then reneging on it.

(EQ) foot-in-the-door technique

Compliance to a large request is gained by preceding it with a very small request. The principle is simply to start small and build. (EQ) ie asking someone at a party to sign a drunk driving petition, then asking someone to put a an ugly poster in their yard

(EQ) that's-not-all technique

Compliance to a planned second request with additional benefits is gained by presenting this request before a response can be made to a first request.

anxiety disorders

Disorders that share features of excessive fear and anxiety and related behavioral disturbances, such as avoidance behaviors.

attitudes

Evaluative reactions (positive or negative) toward objects, events, and other people.

conformity vs. compliance

In conformity, people change their behavior or attitudes to adhere to a group norm, but in compliance, people act in accordance with a direct request from another person or group.

Intermission

Influence of our Physical Environment

(EQ) normative social influence

Influence stemming from our desire to gain the approval and to avoid the disapproval of others.

(EQ) informational social influence

Influence stemming from the need for information in situations in which the correct action or judgment is uncertain. i.e Ben, who observes locals on his first trip to India before attempting to use the bus system himself

(EQ) Eva has a habit of hopping like a rabbit instead of walking as she goes from one place to another. Would a mental health professional be likely to diagnose Eva as having a mental disorder?

Only if her behavior is interfering with her daily functioning and causing distress or harm

(EQ) Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) dissonance study

Study: boring task where participants were asked to lie about the enjoyment of the task to the next group Results: • $1 group rated the task as enjoyable • control and $20 group rated the task as boring

(EQ) just-world hypothesis

The assumption that the world is just and that people get what they deserve. Beware of just-world reasoning. It is not valid, but is often used to justify cruelty to others.

(EQ) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

The current version of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic and classification guidelines for mental disorders. intent: to serve both as a guide and an aid in the accurate diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

diffusion of responsibility

The lessening of individual responsibility for a task when responsibility for the task is spread across the members of a group.

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity. • increases the likelihood that members will forget their moral values and act without thinking and can result in mob violence, riots, and vandalism

(EQ) bystander effect

The probability of a person's helping in an emergency is greater when there are no other bystanders than when there are other bystanders. i.e. Kitty Genovese case

(EQ) attribution

The process by which we explain our own behavior and that of others.

abnormal psychology

The scientific study of mental disorders and their treatment. also known as Psychopathology

group polarization

The strengthening of a group's prevailing opinion about a topic following group discussion about the topic.

(EQ) fundamental attribution error

The tendency as an observer to overestimate dispositional influences and underestimate situational influences on others' behavior. When considering the behavior of others, we... • overestimate dispositional influences • underestimate situational influences (EQ) ie. Anne sees a car run over a squirrel and decides the driver is someone who likes hurting animals

self-serving bias

The tendency to make attributions so that one can perceive oneself favorably. As actors, we tend to overestimate dispositional influences when the outcome of our behavior is positive and to overestimate situational influences when the outcome of our behavior is negative

(EQ) actor-observer bias

The tendency to overestimate situational influences on our own behavior, but to overestimate dispositional influences on the behavior of others.

false consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and unsuccessful/negative behaviors. i.e. • if you like classical music, you tend overestimate the number of other people who like classical • if you fail all of your midterm exams, you tend to overestimate the number of students who also failed

false uniqueness effect

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and successful behaviors. i.e • if you are a good pool player, you tend to think that few other people are. • if you just aced your psychology exam, you think few students did so

(EQ) how do people reduce dissonance?

To reduce this cognitive disharmony, either the attitude or the behavior has to change i.e. a smoker may believe that the medical evidence isn't conclusive (change in attitude)

(EQ) Stanford prison experiment - findings

What was only supposed to be role-playing became reality. The guards' treatment of the prisoners became both harsh and degrading a simple situationist account of the SPE is probably just that, too simple because experiment had a lot of flaws

social facilitation

an *improvement* in simple or well-learned tasks but *worse performance* on complex or unlearned tasks when other people are observing us

compliance

complying with a direct request from another person or group

The Perceptual Bias of Labeling

diagnostic disorder labels tend to lead to negative perceptions and interpretations of a person's behavior in terms of the label

What compliance technique did Milgram use?

foot-in-the-door technique (small shocks followed by incremental voltage increases)

BBC replication of the Stanford prison experiment

unlike Zimbardo and his colleagues, Haslam and Reicher did not assume roles within the prison and were less prescriptive about how the guards should act. What happened? *Contrary to what happened in the SPE, the guards failed to identify with their role and were reluctant to impose their authority.* *The prisoners, however, did form a cohesive group identity, leading them to rebel and overthrow the established regime after six days.* *Study suggest that both situational and dispositional factors are necessary to explain the results of the SPE and that it is the failure of groups to form identities that may lead to tyranny.*

Why does the door-in-the-face technique work?

• *Reciprocity* - making mutual concessions (requester concedes from a large to small request, shouldn't we reciprocate and comply with this smaller request?) • *Guilt reduction* • *Self-presentation* - fear that others won't view us as fair, helpful

2 effects when forming impressions of others

• *primacy effect*- Information gathered early is weighted more heavily than information gathered later in forming an impression of another person • *self-fulfilling prophecy* - Our behavior leads a person to act in accordance with our expectations for that person

Treatments for phobias

• *systematic desensitization with progressive relaxation*: person is engaged in some type of relaxation exercise and gradually exposed to an anxiety producing stimulus, like an object or place • *flooding:* therapeutic version of "dad throwing child in the pool to swim"

Why this difference in attributional bias for others vs. ourselves?

• As observers, our attention is focused on the person, so we see him as the cause of the action. • As actors, our attention is focused on the situation, so we see the situation as the cause of the action

(EQ) 2 classic studies on conformity

• Asch's study using a line-length judgment task • Sherif 's study using the autokinetic effect

(EQ) *4 criteria for mental disorders*

• Atypical (statistically infrequent) • Maladaptive (behavior preventing normal daily functioning) • Harmful or distressing • Irrational

Conforming - *Cultural/Gender Factors*

• Collectivist cultures tend to lead to more conformity than individualistic cultures • women conform more than men

Bennington College study

• Expensive private women's college • Parents were generally conservative (Republican) • Mock election in 1936 • Faculty were very liberal • as the women moved through their education at Bennington, they moved progressively further away from their parents' attitudes.

compliance techniques

• Foot-in-the-door • Door-in-the-face • low-ball • that's-not-all note: each technique involves two requests and it is the second request with which the person wants compliance

groupthink

• Pressure is put on group members to go along with the group's view and external information that disagrees with the group's view is suppressed, which leads to the illusion of unanimity. • Groupthink also leads to an illusion of infallibility—the belief that the group cannot make mistakes (i.e. The Challenger Explosion)

*Four Compliance Techniques*

• The foot-in-the-door and low-ball techniques both lead to commitment to the first request with the hope that the person will feel pressure to remain true to his initial commitment and accede to the second request. • The other two techniques involve reciprocity. Once the other person has made a concession (accepted our refusal in the door-in-the-face technique) or done us a favor (an even better deal in the that's-not-all technique), we think we should reciprocate and accede to the second request.

DSM-5 Diagnostic process

• checking progress • testing and interviews

types of social influence

• conformity • compliance • obedience • group influences

Milgram Study: Obedience or Identification?

• identification with the experimenter - strong positive predictor of obedience • identification with the learner - strong negative predictor of obedience

examples of the that's-not-all technique

• infomercial... "But wait, that's not all, there's more" • car salesperson, he throws in some "bonus options" before you can answer yes or no

2 types of social influence leading to conformity

• informational social influence • normative social influence

(EQ) Stanford prison experiment - flaws

• it is unclear whether SPE participants behaved in ways consistent with their roles because of their natural acceptance of situational role requirements as Zimbardo claims or because of the active leadership provided by Zimbardo • Zimbardo served as prison superintendent and gave the guards an orientation giving clear guidance about how they should behave • confounded by demand characteristics- cues in the experimental environment that make participants aware of what the experimenters expect to find (their hypothesis) and how participants are expected to act • Given that only some of the guards were abusive, is it possible that there could have been some "bad apples"

2 broader types of phobias

• social anxiety disorder • agoraphobia

How Groups Influence Us

• social facilitation • social loafing • diffusion of responsibility • Bystander effect • deindividuation • group polarization • groupthink

Diffusion of responsibility contributes to...

• the bystander effect • deindividuation