Chemistry

how to convert metric units

(K)ing (H)enry (D)ied by (d)rinking (c)hocolate (m)ilk; kilo - hecto - deca - (by) base - deci - centi - milli

particle from lowest to highest penetrating power

(alpha, beta, gamma)

significant figures rule #5

*look to workbook*=

What did John Dalton do for the model of the atom?

- Matter is composed of small particles called atoms -Atoms are indivisible and indestructible -Atoms of an element are all identical (size, mass, and properties) -Each type of element has atoms that are different from atoms of another element -Atoms combine to make compounds -In chemical reactions, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged (Conserved).

Gold-Foil experiment

-Rutherford created a narrow beam of alpha particles and directed it at gold-foil -majority of the particles passed right through while a few were deflected at wide angles -as a result of this experiment Rutherford concluded that the atom was mostly made up of empty space

actinides

-any of the elements actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, and lawrencium -large range of physical properties

post transition metals

-any of the elements aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, tin, lead, bismuth, polonium, and flerovium -physically, post-transition metals are soft (or brittle), have poor mechanical strength, and have melting points lower than those of the transition metals

lanthaniods

-any of the elements lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium -known as rare earth elements

transition metals

-any of the elements scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, copernicium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium and hassium -Chemically they show variable valence and a strong tendency to form coordination compounds, and many of their compounds are colored

octet rule

-atoms need 8 valence electrons to be stable -they will get 8 valence electrons by any means necessary -chemically stable = complete valence shell

Robert A. Milikan

-carried out experiments to find the quantity of charge carried by an electron -he used this value and found the charge to mass ratio measured by Thompson

James Chadwick

-discovered neutrons -experiment based on characteristics of electrons and protons

Earnest Rutherford

-discovered the nucleus -gold foil experiment -atoms are mostly empty space

Erwin Schrodinger

-electron cloud model -areas of probability -electrons act like waves

valence electrons

-electrons on the outer shells -the valence are the only electrons that are involved in reactions -all Noble Gases have their outer shell completely full -go up across table (except transition metals) -Helium has 2 -Group 1 = 1 valence electrons -Group 2 =2 valence electrons -Group 13 = 3 valence electrons -Group 14 = 4 valence electrons -Group 15 = 5 valence electrons -Group 16 = 6 valence electrons -Group 17 = 7 valence electrons -Group 18 = 8 valence electrons

Neils Bohr

-electrons orbit in energy levels -energy the change in levels -solar system model

ionic bonds

-electrostatic forces that holds ions together in ionic compounds -take an electron

VSEPR theory

-explains the three-dimensional shape of methane -the repulsion between electron pairs causes molecular shapes to adjust so that the valence electron pairs stay as far apart as possible

metals

-good conductors of heat and electric current -high luster, or sheen -sheen caused by the its ability to reflect light -all are solids at room temperature, except Mercury (Hg) -all are ductile, or can be turned into wires -most are malleable and can be hammered into sheets without breaking

pnictogens

-group 15A -any of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth -they have five valence electrons, all are solid at room temperature except, nitrogen

chalcogens

-group 16A -any of the elements oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium -lighter elements are important to life, while heavier ones are toxic

halogens

-group 17A -any of the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine -They are reactive nonmetallic elements that form strongly acidic compounds with hydrogen, from which simple salts can be made

noble gases

-group 18A -any of the gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon -They were long believed to be totally unreactive but compounds of xenon, krypton, and radon are now known

alkali metals

-group 1A -any of the elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium -They are very reactive, electropositive, monovalent metals forming strongly alkaline hydroxides

alkaline earth metals

-group 2A -any of the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium -They are reactive, electropositive, divalent metals, and form basic oxides that react with water to form comparatively insoluble hydroxides

representative elements

-groups 1A-7A -they display a wide range of physical and chemical properties

metalloids

-have properties like metals and nonmetals -in some conditions they behave like metals, in others they behave like nonmetals

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

-invented a balance that can measure mass to the nearest 0.0005 grams -revolutionized chemistry

nonmetals

-most are gases at room temperature -a few are solids, like sulfur and phosphorus -one is a liquid; bromine -poor conductors of heat and electric current; Carbon is the exception -tend to be brittle

Eugen Goldstein

-observed a cathode-ray tube and found rays traveling in the direction opposite of the cathode rays -he called them canal waves and found they had positive particles

Biotechnology

-technology that applies to the production of biological products or processes -based on the DNA sequence

electronegativity

-the ability to attract electrons -atoms that are electronegative tend to hold electrons tightly

Brownian Motion

-the chaotic movement of colloidal particles -caused by collisions of the molecules of the dispersion medium with the small, dispersed particles

oxidation number

-the number of electrons lost or gained; includes a charge -Group 1 has an oxidation number of +1, because it looses 1 electron -Group 2 has an oxidation number of +2, because it looses 2 electrons -Group 13 has an oxidation number of +3, because it looses 3 electrons -Group 14 has an oxidation number of+4/-4, because it can either loose 4 electrons or gain 4 electrons -Group 15 has an oxidation number of -3, because it gains 3 electrons -Group 16 has an oxidation number of -2, because it gains 2 electrons -Group 17 has an oxidation number of -1, because it gains 1 electron -Group 18 doesn't gain or loose any electrons

substances that sublime

-turn from a solid directly into a gas; very weak attractive forces (CO2 & I2)

How many significant digits in 1440?

0 - counting numbers and definitions are infinitely precise.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. All elements are composed of tiny invisible particles called atoms 2. Atoms of the same element are identical. The atoms of one element are different from those of any other element 3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or can chemically combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds 4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are separated, joined, or rearranged. Atoms of one element, however, are never changed into atoms of another element as a result of a chemical reaction

Kinetic Theory

1. all matter is made of particles 2. particles are in constant motion 3. energy makes particles move faster

Unit analysis: Convert 132,540 cm to km

132,540 cm x 1m/100cm x 1km/1000m = 1.32540 km

C-14 has what atomic number?

14 - number of neutrons

What is the maximum number of electrons in each principle energy level?

1st-2, 2nd=8, 3rd-18, 4th-32, 5th=32, 6th=18, 7th=8

How many significant digits in 230mL?

2

What is the maximum number of electrons any orbital can hold?

2

mixtures are

2 or more elements/substances that aren't bonded

Which electron configuration is correct for a fluoride ion?

2-8

How many total atoms are found in (NH4)3PO4?

20 = 3N, 12H, 1P, and 4O

Which correctly represents an atom of neon containing 11 neutrons? 11Ne 21Ne 20Ne 22Ne

21Ne

molar volume of a gas

22.4 L

A mole of a gas at STP occupies

22.4 liters

How many significant digits in 0.00540 sec?

3

Orbitals

3D regions of space where electrons probably exist.

What is the mass number of an atom with 18 protons and 22 neutrons?

40

mole (mol)

6.02 X 10^23

mole

6.02 x 10^23

Avogadro's number

6.02 x 10^23; the number of particles in 1 mole of a substance

Find the average atomic mass of lithium if 7.4% are 6Li and 92.6% are 7Li

6.926 amu

How many principle energy levels are there on the periodic table?

7

octet

8 valence electrons in outer shell (most stable at this point); tend to form ions to obtain such a configuration of electrons.

Crystal Lattice

A 3D geometric arrangement of particles in which each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ions.

Chemical change

A change in the identity of a material that results in a different material with different composition and properties. Ex. Sodium and Chlorine reacting to make table salt.

Physical change

A change that can alter the physical properties of a substance without changing its identity. Ex. cutting paper.

ion

A charged atom

Sigma bonds

A covalent bond that forms when orbitals overlap end to end. Usually found in single bonds and the first bond of a double or triple bond.

Pi bond

A covalent bond that forms when orbitals overlap side to side. Usually found in double and triple bonds.

Weight

A measure of an amount of matter and also the effect of the Earth's gravitational pull on the matter. Measured on a scale. Can change based on gravity!

Heterogeneous mixture

A mixture of 2 or more substances in separate phases, such as a suspension. Ex. Pizza

Alloy

A mixture of elements that has metallic properties.

Homogeneous mixture

A mixture that shows only a single phase with uniform properties throughout, such as a solution. Ex. Salt water

Percent by Mass (p87)

A percentage by mass of each element in a compound. Formula = Mass of element/Mass of compound x 100

Extensive physical property

A physical property that depends on the amount of the substance present. Ex Mass

Intensive physical property

A physical property that is independent of amount of substance and is based on what the substance is. Ex density Note: all chemical properties as intensive!!

Chemical Property

A property of matter that describes how one substance reacts in the presence of another substance or condition. Ex. Hydrogen combusts in the presence of oxygen.

Compound

A pure substance that consists of two or more different elements chemically bonded together. Ex. NaCl

Element

A pure substance whose atoms all have the same atomic number and cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means into a more stable and simpler substance. Ex. Sodium

Crystallization

A separation technique that produces pure solid particles of a substance from a homogeneous solution that contains a dissolved substance.

Distillation

A technique that can be used to physically separate most homogeneous mixture based on the differences in the boiling points of the substances.

Filtration

A technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a liquid in a heterogeneous mixture.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable statement or prediction about what has been observed.

monoprotic acids

Acids that contain one ionizable hydrogen

triprotic acids

Acids that contain three ionizable hydrogens

diprotic acids

Acids that contain two ionizable hydrogens

Where are the transuranium elements found on the periodic table?

All elements after #92 - Uranium are transuranium elements. These are all man-made.

significant figures rule #1

All non-zero digits are significant.

Interstitial alloy

Alloy formed when a much smaller atom fill in the spaces between the other atoms in the crystal lattice.

Theory

An explanation supported by many experiments; is still subject to new experimental data, can be modified, and is considered valid if it can be used to make predictions that are proven true.

Orbital notation

An expression that represents the principle energy levels, sublevels, orbitals and electrons in an atom using lines for orbitals and arrows for electrons. Ex. Oxygen

Physical Property

Any property of matter that can be observed or measured without altering its chemical composition. Ex. Density of Iron

significant figures rule #2

Any zero that is between two significant digits is also significant.

Rutherford discovered what about the atom?

Atom is mostly empty space, tiny/dense nucleus, and positive protons.

Mendeleev organized his periodic table by ...

Atomic mass

Octet rule

Atoms gain, lose or share electrons in an effort to gain a full valence level.

Ions

Atoms that have gained or lost electron and now have an imbalance of protons and electrons.

Isotope

Atoms with the same number of protons (same element) but different numbers of neutrons. Ex. Carbon-12 and Carbon - 14

Which of the following will form an ion with a a smaller radius than that of its atom? Cl N Br Ba

Ba (barium)

Meter (M)

Base unit for length.

Kilogram (kg)

Base unit for mass

Kelvin (K)

Base unit for temperature

Second (sec)

Base unit for time

Label the parts of a wave - crest, trough, wavelength, and amplitude

Be able to calculate waves/sec.

Know how to name ionic compounds - all forms (pp222, 224

Be able to name covalent compounds and acids. pp248-252

degrees kelvin =

C + 273

Formulas for temperature conversions

C = 5/9(F - 32) F = 9/5C + 32 C = K -273 K = C + 273 (pp34-35)

Isotopes are written in a number of ways:

C-14 is Carbon-14 and is also written with 14 as the mass number

Which has the greatest nuclear charge? Cl-35 Ar-40 K-39 Ca-40

Ca-40

What experiments did Thomson do?

Cathode ray tube experiments

Properties of solids

Definite shape and volume, is incompressible, and expands slightly when heated. High density. Particles are held in place by strong forces of attraction, touching on all sides (locked in place), with low KE energy.

Properties of liquids

Definite volume and indefinite shape (takes on the shape of its container). Is incompressible and expands slightly when heated. High density. Particle are touching but have the ability to slide and move around. Balance between attractive forces and KE.

Qualitative data

Describes a quality of something, like the color, shape, etc.

What is a problem associated with nuclear reactors?

Disposal of radioactive waste is a problem associated with nuclear reactors.

What did Antoine Lavoisier doe for the periodic table?

Divided all known elements into 4 groups: Gases, Metals, Nonmetals, and Earths

The atom is smaller than the anion (gaining valence electrons so the ion has more electrons than protons).

Do ionic radii increase or decrease in the formation of anions?

The atom is larger than the cation (losing valence electrons in outermost energy level).

Do ionic radii increase or decrease in the formation of cations?

Properties of metallic bonds

Electron Sea Model. Form solid crystals with high densities, moderately high melting points, shiny luster, malleable, ductile and good conductors of heat and electricity because of their delocalized electrons.

Chemical bonds between atoms involve the rearrangement of ____________ to maximize stability?

Electrons

JJ Thomson discovered what part of the atom?

Electrons and the atom is neutral.

Neils Bohr contributed what to our atomic model?

Energy Levels

Diatomic element - H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

Exist naturally when 2 atoms of the same element share electrons (covalent bond). These molecules are more stable this way. List all 7.

Polyatomic element - P4 (phosphorus), O3 (ozone), S8 (sulfur)

Exist naturally when multiple atoms of the same element share electrons (covalent bond). These molecules are more stable this way. Give an example.

What is the trend for electron affinity on the periodic table?

Family = decreases Period = increases

What is the trend for ionization energy on the periodic table?

Family = decreases Period = increases

What is the trend for electronegativity on the periodic table?

Family = decreases Period = increases A measure of the desire of an atom to add and electron when BONDING! Highest = F Lowest = Francium

What is the trends for atomic radius on the periodic table?

Family = increases Period = decreases

Properties of ionic bonds

Form solid crystals with high melting and boiling points, and high densities. They will split or cleave along flat surfaces to maintain the proper formula unit ratio. Solids do not conduct electricity, but they will when melted or dissolved in water.

Why do atoms bond?

Gain stability and lose energy

Properties of nonmetals. Where are they located on the periodic table?

Generally gases, 1 liquid, or crumbly solids. Insulators because they do not conduct electricity or heat. Found on the right side of the periodic table.

SI prefixes - Know prefixes and symbols from Giga- to nano-

Giga (G) = 1, 000,000,000 kilo (k) = 1000 deci (d) = 1/10th centi (c) = 1/100th milli (m) = 1/1000th micro (u) = 1/1,000,000th nano (n) = 1/1,000,000,000th

What experiments did Rutherford do?

Gold Foil experiments

Properties of metals. Where are they located on the periodic table?

Good conductors of heat and electricity,hard, lustrous, malleable and ductile. Found on left and middle of periodic table.

Where are alkali metals found on the periodic table?

Group 1 or family 1A

Where are the halogens found on the periodic table?

Group 17 or family 7A

Where are the noble gases found on the periodic table?

Group 18 or family 8A

Where are the alkaline earth metals found on the periodic table?

Group 2 or family 2A

solids

Have a definite shape and volume, and particles vibrate around a fixed axis

Period/Series

Horizontal row on the periodic table.

Periods

Horizontal rows on the periodic table. Tell how many energy levels an atom has and which energy level hold the valence electrons for that element.

1 = 1, 2 = 4, 3 = 9, 4 = 16, 5 = 16, 6 = 9, 7 = 4

How many orbitals are in each principle energy level?

significant figures rule #4

In a decimal value, trailing zeroes (zeroes after the last non-zero decimal place) are significant. (0.100 has 3 sig figs)

Control

In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison.

Independent variable

In an experiment, the variable that the experimenter plans or chooses to change. Graphed on the X-axis.

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable whose value depends on the independent variable. It is the measurable outcome. Graphed on the Y-axis.

Elements that are physically and chemically similar to each other occur where on the periodic table? Why?

In families (vertical columns) because they have similar electron configurations.

Vaporization

Includes: Boiling and evaporating. Phase change from L -> G

Properties of gases

Indefinite shape and volume. Compressible, expand to fill container, low density, effuse and diffuse. Particles move independently of each other with lots of KE.

Which has the greatest atomic number? S Cl Ar K

K (19)

Know how electron configuration changes for an ion!

Know how to make formulas for ionic compounds using oxidation numbers. pp220, 222

significant figures rule #3

Leading zeros (zeroes that occur before the first non-zero digit) are never significant.

Properties of covalent bonds

Makes gas, liquid, and solids with low melting points at room temperature. Solids have low densities and are brittle crystals. Exist in a wide array of colors and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are insulators.

Law of Conservation of Mass (p78)

Mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction, but is conserved. Mass before the reaction = Mass after the reaction.

Atomic radii

Metals - 1/2 the distance between two adjacent atoms in a crystal. Nonmetals - 1/2 the distance between the nuclei of a molecule of identical atoms.

Beta particles

Negatively charged particle (electron) is ejected from the nucleus. (losing neutron and gaining proton). weak force

Electrons

Negatively charged particles found outside the nucleus. In neutral atoms, the number of electrons = the number of protons. Has a mass of approximately 1/1840th of an amu.

Neutrons

Neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Has a mass of approximately 1 amu.

Chadwick discovered what part of the atom?

Neutrons

Where is most of the mass of an atom found?

Nucleus

Valence electrons

Number of electrons found in an atoms outer-most energy level. These are the electrons used in bonding.

Atomic mass number

Number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Atomic number

Number of protons in an atom. Gives identity.

Quantitative data

Numerical data. 1 foot

What can be changed when balancing chemical equations?

ONLY COEFFICIENTS!

Where is most of the size (volume) of an atom found?

Orbitals

Electromagnetic Wave Relationship - formula

P 140

Energy of a photon - formula

P 143

Condensation

Phase change from G -> L

Freezing

Phase change from L -> S

Sublimation

Phase change from S -> G

Melting

Phase change from S ->L

+ - + -

Positive & negative

Alpha particles

Positively charged particles ejected from unstable nucleus (alpha particle has same composition as helium nucleus). you are solving for whats left behind after alpha particle has left.

Protons

Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Has a mass of approximately 1 amu.

What is today's model of the atom called? How does it look at the electron?

Quantum model Electron - wave

Law of Definite Proportions (p88)

Regardless of the amount, a compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportions by mass. Formula = Mass of element/Mass of compound x 100

Drawing ionic bonds (all 3 steps)

Remember in the second step, ions should be in [ ] and third step has the correct formula.

Moseley's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...

Reorganized the table by atomic number and gave us the Modern Periodic Law.

What is the name for the A groups on the periodic table?

Representative elements

hertz (Hz)

SI unit for cycles per second

Properties of metalloids. Where are they located on the periodic table?

Share properties of metals and nonmetals. Metallic luster, but crumbly and brittle solids. Conduct electricity but not as well as metals. Found along the stair-step line.

Know how to draw Electron-dot structures (Lewis dot) for all elements.

Shows valence electrons (s and p sublevel).

Why do elements in the same group or family have similar properties?

Similar electron configuration.

List the 4 types of covalent bonds.

Single, double, triple, and coordinate

molecular substances

Substances containing mostly covalent bonds; They are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals or stronger hydrogen attractions (carbon monoxide.

ionic compounds

Substances containing mostly ionic bonds

Which has the greatest number of nucleons? Sn-119 Sb-122 Te-128 I-127

Te-128

Newland's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...

The Law of Octaves. The properties of every eighth elements repeats when organized by atomic mass.

Density D = m/V g/mL or g/cm3 or kg/L (pp36-37)

The amount of mass per unit of volume. It is a physical property. What is the formula? What are the units?

Electron configuration

The arrangement of electrons in an atom: a number represents the energy level, a letter represents the sublevel, and an superscripted number represents the number of electrons. Ex. H - 1s1

Metallic bond

The communal sharing of electrons between metallic cations. Also known as the Electron Sea Theory.

Ionic Bond (Binary ionic bond is when there are only 2 different elements present - a metal and a nonmetal).

The electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles (cations and anions) together.

Ionization Energy

The energy added/required to remove an electron from an atom to make a cation.

Electron affinity

The energy released when an electron is added to an atom to form an anion.

Atomic mass

The weighted average of all of the isotopes of an element.

Where are the transition metals found on the periodic table?

These are the B-groups

Where are the inner transition metals found on the periodic table?

These include the lanthanides and actinides.

What is the name for the B groups on the periodic table?

Transition elements

Dobreiner's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...

Triads - groups of 3 elements with similar properties.

Polyatomic ion

Two or more covalently bonded atoms that often act as single charged particles in chemical reactions.

Family/Group

Vertical column on the periodic table

Number of electrons transferred and size of ions bonding. Be sure you can rank ionic compounds by bond strength.

What are the 2 things that affect the lattice energy of an ionic compound?

Positive = as the independent variable increases so does the dependent variable. Negative = as the independent variable increases, the dependent variable decreases.

What does a positive slope of a line tell you? What does a negative slope of a line tell you?

% error = |error|/actual value x 100 (pp48-49)

What is the formula for % error?

1 = s, 2 = s & p, 3 = s, p, d, 4 = s, p, d, f, 5 = s, p, d, f 6 = s, p, d, 7 = s & p

What sublevels are in each of the 7 principle energy levels?

Law of Multiple Proportions (p89)

When different compounds are formed by the combination of the same elements, they will have different mass ratios of their elements. Formula of compound 1 = Mass of element 1/ Mass of element 2 Formula of compound 2 = Mass of element 1/ Mass of element 2

decomposition reaction

a chemical change in which a single compound breaks down into two or more products

combustion reaction

a chemical change in which an element or a compound reacts with oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat or light

single-replacement reaction

a chemical change in which one element replaces a second element in a compound

double-replacement reaction

a chemical change in which there is an exchange of positive ions between two compounds

combination reaction

a chemical change in which two or more substances react to form a single new substance

skeleton equation

a chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts of the reactants and products

pollutant

a chemical found in air, water, or soil that is harmful to humans or other organisms

halocarbons

a class of organic compounds containing covalently bonded flourine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine

emulsion

a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a liquid

fractional distillation

a common method to separate and collect: hydrocarbons, ionic solids, metals, & precipitates

molecular compound

a compound composed of molecules

binary compound

a compound composed of two elements and can be either ionic or molecular

ether

a compound in which oxygen is bonded to two carbon groups

scientific law

a concise statement that summarizes the results many observations and experiments

electrode

a conductor in a circuit that carries electrons to form a substance other than a metal

mole ratio

a conversion factor derived from the coefficients of a balanced chemical equation interpreted in terms of moles

liquid

a form of matter that has an indefinite shape, flows, yet has a fixed volume

solid

a form of matter that has definite shape and volume

gas

a form of matter that takes both the shape and volume of it's container

carbonyl group

a functional group with the general structure C=O

Geiger counter

a gas-filled metal tube used to detect radiation

scientific notation

a given number is written a the product of two numbers a coefficient and 10 raised to a power

battery

a group of cells connected together

homologous series

a group of compounds

chemical symbol

a group of one or two letters that represent an element on the periodic table

colloid

a heterogeneous mixture containing particles that range in size from 1 and 1000 nm

gamma ray

a high-energy photon emitted by a radioisotope

solution

a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

alkane

a hydrocarbon in which there are only covalent bonds

alkyl group

a hydrocarbon substituent

Electronegativity is...

a measure of an element's attraction for electrons

temperature

a measure of how hot or cold an object

compressibility

a measure of how much the volume of matter decreases under pressure

rate

a measure of speed of any change that occurs within an interval of time

mass

a measure of the amount of matter an object contains

concentration

a measure of the amount of solute that is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent

entropy (S)

a measure of the disorder of a system

vapor pressure

a measure of the force excreted by a gas above a liquid

volume

a measure of the space occupied by an object

significant figures

a measurement include all of the digits that are known, plus a last digit that is estimated

suspension

a mixture from which particles settle out upon standing

heterogeneous mixture

a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout

homogeneous mixture

a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout

bonding orbital

a molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond

diatomic molecule

a molecule consisting of two atoms

dipole

a molecule that has two poles

Adonosine Triphosphate (ATP)

a molecule that transmits energy in the cells of living organisms

molecules

a neutral group of atoms joined together covalent bonds

positron

a particle with the mass of an electron but has a positive charge

protein

a peptide with more than 100 amino acids

mixture

a physical blend of two or more components

oxidation number

a positive or negative number assigned to an atom to indicate its degree of oxidation or reduction

experiment

a procedure that is used to test a hypothesis

exothermic process

a process that releases heat to its surroundings

neutron moderation

a process that slows down neutrons so the reactor fuel captures them to continue the chain reaction

intermediate

a product of one of the steps in the reaction mechanism

extensive property

a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample

intensive property

a property that depends on the type of matter in a sample

colligative property

a property that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not upon their identity

specific rate constant (k)

a proportionally constant relating the concentrations of reactants to the rate of reaction

hypothesis

a proposed explanation for an observation (if, then statement)

physical property

a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's composition

measurement

a quantity that has both a number and a unit

conversion factor

a ratio of equivalent measurements

substitution reaction

a reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms, replaces another atom or group of atoms

elementary reaction

a reaction in which reactants are converted to products in a single step

reversible reaction

a reaction in which the conversion of reactants to products and the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously

nonspontaneous reaction

a reaction that does not favor the formation of products at the specified conditions

spontaneous reaction

a reaction that occurs naturally and favors the formation of products at the specified conditions

atomic orbital

a region of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron

chemical equation

a representation of a chemical reaction; the formulas of the reactants are connected by an arrow with the formulas of the products

International System of Units

a revised version of the metric system where there is an international agreement on what measurements mean

gene

a segment of DNA that carries instructions for making one peptide chain

precipitate

a solid that forms and settles out of a liquid mixture

homogenous mixtures

a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has the same proportions of its components throughout any given sample.

buffer

a solution in which the pH remains relatively constant when small amounts of acid or base are added

concentrated solution

a solution that contains a large amount of solute

dilute solution

a solution that contains a small amount of solute

unsaturated solution

a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure

acidic solution

a solution where H>+ is greater than OH>-

functional group

a specific arrangement of atoms in an organic compound that is capable of characteristic chemical reactions

condensed structural formula

a structural formula where some of the bonds and/or atoms are left out of the structural formula

resonance structure

a structure that occurs when it is possible to draw two or more valid electron dot structures that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion

what is a compound

a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together.

product

a substance produced in a chemical reaction

Lewis Acid

a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

amphoteric

a substance that can act as both an acid and a base

Lewis Base

a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

pure substance

a substance that cannot be separated; the components loose their individual properties

compound

a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion

inhibitor

a substance that interferes with the action of a catalyst

catalyst

a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but is not used up in the chemical reaction

disaccharides

a sugar such as sucrose that forms from two monosaccharides

Standard temperature and Pressure (STP)

a temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 101.3 kPa or 1 atmosphere (atm)

polyatomic ion

a tightly bound group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge and behaves as a unit

glass

a transparent fusion of inorganic substances that have cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing

salt bridge

a tube containing a strong electrolyte

dry cell

a voltaic cell in which the electrolyte is a paste

electrical potential

a voltaic cell measure of the cell's ability to produce an electric current

Hydronium Ion (H>3O<+)

a water molecule that gains a hydroge ion

Electron dot model

a way of representing the valence electron of an atom

dimensional analysis

a way to analyze and solve problems using the units, or dimensions

atomic mass

a weighted average of the atoms in a naturally occurring sample of the element

theory

a well tested explanation for a broad set of observations

strong acids

acids that are completely ionized in an aqueous solution

weak acids

acids that ionize only slightly in an aqueous solution

elements of group 2 are called ______________.

alkaline earth metals

straight-chain alkanes

alkanes that contain any number of carbon atoms, one after another, in a chain

The average atomic mass is the weighted average mass of

all the known isotopes of an element

branched-chain alkane

an alkane with one or more alkyl groups

periodic table

an arrangement of elements in which the elements are separated into groups based on a set of repeating properties

substituent

an atom or group of atoms that can take the place of a hydrogen on a parent hydrocarbon molecule

ion

an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge

Protons & neutrons are in

an atom's nucleus (nucleons)

dispersion interactions

an attraction caused by the motion of electrons; in nonpolar molecules

electrolytic cell

an electrochemical cell used to cause a chemical change through the application of electrical energy

vacuum

an empty space with no particles and no pressure

net ionic equation

an equation for a reaction in a solution that shows only those particles that are directly involved in the chemical change

balanced equation

an equation in which each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of each element and mass is conserved

half-reaction

an equation showing just the oxidation or just the reduction that takes place in a redox reaction

complete ionic equation

an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions

rate law

an expression for the rate of a reaction in terms of the concentration of reactants

calorimeter

an insulated device used to measure the absorption or release of heat in chemical or physical processes

spectator ion

an ion that appears on both sides of an equation and is not directly involved in the reaction

monoatomic ions

an ion that consists of a single atom with a positive or negative charge resulting from the loss or gain of one or more valence electrons respectively

anion

an ion with a negative charge

cation

an ion with a positive charge

base

an ionic compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water (OH-)

aldehyde

an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is always joined to at least one hydrogen

ketone

an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is joined to two other carbons

aromatic compound

an organic compound that contains a benzene ring or other ring in which the bonding is like that of benzene

alcohol

an organic compound with an OH group

activated complex (transition state)

an unstable arrangement of atoms that forms momentarily at the peak of the activation-energy barrier

tetrahedral angle

angles that are 109.5°

neutral solution

any aqueous solution in which H>+ and OH>- are equal

peptide

any combination of amino acids in which the amino group of one amino acid is united with the caroxyl group of another amino acid

amino acid

any compound that contains an amino group (-NH>2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH)

electrochemical process

any conversion between chemical energy and elecrical energy

electrochemical cell

any device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy

surfacant

any substance that interferes with the hydrogen bonding between water molecules and thereby reduces surface tension

Solutions

are the best examples of homogenous mixtures

meter means

area (m^2)

Where are electron configurations written?

at the bottom of an element's box on the periodic table. (2-8-3)

Elements are arranged on the modern periodic table in order of increasing...

atomic number

covalent bond

atoms held together by sharing electrons

isotopes

atoms that have the same amount of protons but a different amount of neutrons

collision theory

atoms, ions and molecules that can react to form products when they collide with one another, provided that the colliding particles have enough kinetic energy

hydrogen bonds

attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom; always involves hydrogen

strong bases

bases that dissociate completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions

weak bases

bases that react with water to form the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the base

Democritus's Atomic Philosophy

believed that atoms were tiny and indestructible

Where are mettaloids located on the periodic table?

border metals and nonmetals

Liquids

bromine and mercury

Chromatography

can also be used to separate mixtures of liquids and mixtures of gases; the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the components move at different rates. (Ink, paint, color)

mixtures

can be separated; components keep their properties

kelvin means

celsius (C)

sublimation

changing form a solid directly to a gas

condensation

changing from a gas to a liquid

deposition

changing from a gas to a solid

evaporation (boiling)

changing from a liquid to a gas

freezing

changing from a liquid to a solid

melting

changing from a solid to a liquid

reduction

complete or partial gain of electrons or loss of oxygen

oxidation

complete or partial loss of electrons or gain of oxygen

ionic compounds

compounds composed of cations and anions

Ternary compounds

compounds consisting of three or more atoms

cyclic hydrocarbons

compounds that contain a hydrocarbon ring

unsaturated compounds

compounds that contain double or triple carbon-carbon bonds

isomers

compounds that have the same molecular formula but different molecular structures

structural isomers

compounds that have the same molecular formula, but the atoms are joined together in a different order

metallic bonds

consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for positively charged metal ions

carboxyl group

consists of a carbonyl group attached to a hydroxyl group

film badge

consists of several layers of photographic film covered with black lightproof paper, all encased in a plastic or metal holder

conjugate acid-base pair

consists of two substances related by the loss or gain of a simple hydrogen ion

genes

contain information that controls changes that take place in cells

supersaturated solution

contains more solute than solvent than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature and pressure

saturated solution

contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a constant temperature and pressure

cathode ray

created by the electrical charging of both a cathode and an anode

Atomic radii does what?

decrease left to right across a period due to increasing nuclear charge.

esters

derivatives of carboxylic acids OH of the carboxyl group has been replaced by an OR from alcohol

vapor

describes a gaseous state of a substance that is generally a liquid or solid at room temperature

combined gas law

describes the relationship among the pressure, temperature, and volume of an enclosed gas

quantum mechanical model

determines the allowed energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find the electron in various locations around the nucleus

limiting reagent

determines the amount of product that can be formed by a reaction

electron dot structures

diagrams that show valence electrons as dots

J. J. Thompson

discovered the electron and developed the "plum-pudding" model of the atom

physical changes

do not form new substances; they merely change the appearance of the original material. (the melting of ice) H20 (s) > H20 (l)

dot diagram

dots represent 1 valence electron

period

each horizontal row of the periodic table

group

each vertical column of the periodic table

Voltaic cells

electrochemical cells used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy

The current, wave-mechanical model of the atom has

electrons in "clouds" (orbitals) around the nucleus

Hund's rule

electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in the way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible

aufbau principle

electrons occupy the orbitals of the lowest energy first

pure substances are broken up into two categories:

elements and compounds

transuranium elements

elements in the periodic table with atomic numbers above 92

Diatomic molecules

elements that form two atom molecules in their natural form at STP

free energy

energy that is available to do work

Heat (q)

energy that transfers from one object to another because of a temperature difference between them

- + - +

entire atom

molal boiling point elevation constant (K^b)

equal to the change in boiling point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute

molal freezing point depression constant (K^f)

equal to the change in freezing point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute

solubility product constant (K^sp)

equals the product of the concentrations of the ions each raised to a power equal to the coefficient of the ion in the disassociation equation.

waxes

esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols

denatured alcohol

ethanol with an added substance to make it toxic

mixtures is divided up into two categories:

even distribution (homogenous) and uneven distribution (heterogenous)

surroundings

everything else in the universe

lipids

fats, oils and other water-insoluble compounds

Ionic bonds (2)

form when the electronegativity difference between two bonding atoms is greater than 1.7

Ionic bonds

formed when one atom transfers an electron to another atom when forming a bond with it.

condensation

gas to liquid

deposition

gas to solid

Ernest Rutherford's

gold foil experiment showed that an atom is mostly empty space with a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

alkyl halides

halocarbons in which a halogen is attached to a carbon of an aliphatic chain

aryl halides

halocarbons in which a halogen is attached to a carbon of an arene ring

elements of group 17 are called ______________.

halogens

A compound differs from an element in that a compound...

has a homogeneous composition; it can bond chemically

ideal gas constant (R)

has the value of 8.31

liquids

have closely-spaced particles that easily slide past one another; they have no definite shape, but have a definite colume

Heterogenous mixtures

have discernable components and are not uniform throughout

gases

have widely-spaced particles that are in random motion (collide with container to create pressure).

Electrons can be excited to jump to

higher energy levels. They emit energy light when they fall from higher energy levels back down to lower (ground state) energy levels. Bright line spectra are produced.

What are periods on the periodic table?

horizontal rows

accuracy

how close a measurement comes to the actual value of what is measured

percision

how close a series of measurements are to one another

precision

how close the true values are to each other (range); unrelated to accuracy; 143.5 + or - 3.5

accuracy

how close to true value a given measurement is (average); unrelated to precision; 143.5

alkenes

hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-carbon double covalent bonds

alkynes

hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-carbon triple covalent bonds

Le Châtelier's principle

if a stress is applied to a system in dynamic equilibrium, the system changes in a way that relieves the stress

octet rule

in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas

addition reaction

in this reaction a substance is added at the double or triple bond of an alkene or alkyne

Atomic radii trend (3)

increase as you go down a group due to increased electron energy levels.

Ionization energy (IE) does what?

increases as you go up and to the right on the Periodic Table.

Electronegativity trend

increases up and to the right

equilibrium position

indicates whether the reactants or products are favored in a reversible reaction

geometric isomers

isomers that have atoms joined in the same order, but differ in the orientation of groups around a double bond

kernel

kernel of an atom includes everything in an atom except the atom's valence electrons

Neutrons and gamma rays

lack charge and mass (just energy). Going from excited state (more energy [m]) to ground state (less energy) by ejecting gamma rays.

amorphous solid

lacks an ordered internal structure

Where are metals located on the periodic table?

left of the "staircase" on the Periodic Table and at the bottom

half life

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay

phospholipids

lipids that contain phosphate groups

evaporation

liquid to gas

freezing

liquid to solid

immiscible

liquids that are insoluble in one another

activity series

lists metals in order of decreasing reactivity

triglyceride

long-chain carboxylic acids

Metric / SI units

m (meter), g (gram), L (liter), S (seconds), a (amps), K (kelvin)

The number of neutrons =

mass number (A) - atomic number (Z)

How to find the number of neutrons

mass number (top) - atomic number (bottom)

substance

matter that has a uniform and definite composition

transconfiguration

methyl groups are on opposite sides of the double bond

cisconfiguration

methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond

Air is classified chemically as a(n)

mixture; homogeneous mixture of many gases that are not chemically bonded

alloys

mixtures composed of two or more elements, where at least one is a metal

stereoisomers

molecules in which the atoms are joined in the same order, but the positions of the atoms in space are different

carbohydrates

monomers and polymers of aldehydes and ketones that have numerous hydroxyl groups attached; they are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

nucleotides

monomers that make up the DNA and RNA polymers

Anions

negatively charged (-) ions; form when a neutral atom gains electrons; larger than their parent atom

electrons

negatively charged subatomic particles

Neutrons have

no charge and a mass of 1 amu

elements of group 18 are called _______________.

noble gases

noble gases (group 18) are

nonreactive and stable due to the fact that their valence level of electrons is completely filled.

top number is

number of nucleons (mass number)

bottom number is

number of protons (atomic number)

Combustion reactions

occur when a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to make CO2 and H2O

Fusion reactions

occur when light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus and a lot of energy

Single replacement reactions

occur when one element replaces another element in a compound

dipole interactions

occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another

Decomposition reactions

occur when single reactant forms two or more products

Double replacement reactions

occur when two compounds react to form two new compounds

synthesis reactions

occur when two or more reactants combine to form a single product

fusion

occurs when nuclei combine to produce a nucleus of greater mass

Reactants

on the left side of the reaction arrow

products

on the right side of the reaction arrow

polar molecule

one end of the molecule is slightly negative and one end is slightly positive

atomic radius

one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when next to each other but not bound in a molecule

atomic mass unit

one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom

Hund's Rule

orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

saturated compounds

organic compounds that contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms per carbon atom

optical isomers

pairs of molecules that differ only in the way that four different groups are arranged around a central carbon atom

crystal

particles are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice

The Bohr Model of the atom

placed electrons in "planet-like" orbits around the nucleus of an atom.

nucleic acids

polymers that are found primarily in the cell nuclei

Cations

positive charges (+) ions; form when a neutral atom loses electrons; smaller than their parent atom

protons are

positively charged (+) with a mass of 1 amu

bright line spectra

produced when electrons fall from higher energy levels to ground state

enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts

Which particle can be accelerated in a magnetic field?

proton

Two isotopes of the same element will have the same number of (choose one): neutrons and electrons, neutrons and nucleons, protons and nucleons, protons and electrons.

protons and electrons

matter is divided into two categories:

pure substances and mixtures

Elements are

pure substances composed of atoms with the same atomic number; they cannot be decomposed

What can radiation be used for?

radiation can be used to kill bacteria on foods to slow the spoilage process

ionizing radiation

radiation emitted by radioisotopes

electromagnetic radiation

radio waves, micro waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays

neutralization reactions

reactions in which an acid and base react in an aqueous solution to produce a salt and water

oxidization-reduction reaction

reactions that involve oxidization

structural formula

represents the covalent bonds by dashes and shows the arrangement of covalently bonded atoms

Applied Chemistry

research that is directed toward a practical goal or application

chemical changes

result in the formation of new substances (the electrolysis of water)

atmospheric pressure

results from the collisions of atoms and molecules in air with objects

gas pressure

results from the force exerted by a gas per unit of surface area of an object

Where are nonmetals located on the periodic table?

right side

Which sublevel is found in every principle energy level?

s

How many sublevels are there? List them.

s, p, d, f

How many orbitals does each of the sublevels have?

s=1, p=3, d=5, f=7

What is the maximum number of electrons in each sublevel?

s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14

Isotopes are atoms with

same number of protons but different number of neutrons

Filtration

separates mixtures of solids and liquids

distillation

separates mixtures with different boiling points

Celsius scale

sets the freezing point at 0 degrees Celsius and the boiling point of water at 100 degrees Celsius

Kelvin scale

sets the freezing point of water at 273.15 and the boiling point 373.15

f orbitals

seven orbitals

p orbital

shaped like propeller blades, the second energy level; 3 orbitals (8 electrons)

chemical formula

shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the smallest representative unit of a substance

convalent bonds can contain...

single, double, or triple bonds in order to satisfy to octet rule

Electrons are

small and are negatively charged (-) with a mass of almost 0 amu.

coefficients

small whole number integers that are placed in front of the formulas in an equation in order to balance it

monomers

smaller molecules that combine to form a polymer

unit cell

smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the geometric shape of the crystal

network solids

solids that melt at over 1000°C or higher, or decomposes without melting at all

homogenous mixtures are known as

solutions (salt water, air, etc.)

Fission reactions (splitting the atom)

split heavy unstable nuclei into smaller stable ones (release huge amounts of energy)

STP

standard temperature and pressure

Pauli Exclusion Principle

states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only if the electrons have opposite spins

Henry's Law

states that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

states that at constant volume and temperature, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the component gases

Avogadro's Hypothesis

states that equal volumes of gases of the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles

Boyle's Law

states that for a given mass of a gas at constant temperature, the volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure

Hess's Law of heat summation

states that if you can also add the heats of reaction to give the final heat of reaction

law of conservation of energy

states that in any chemical or physical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed

law of conservation of mass

states that in any physical change or chemical reaction, mass is conserved. Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

law of definite proportions

states that in samples of any chemical compound, the masses of elements are always in the same proportions

law of disorder

states that the natural tendency is for systems to move in the direction of maximum disorder or randomness

Gay-Lussac's Law

states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature if the volume remains constant

The Periodic Law

states that the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

Graham's Law of Effusion

states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas's molar mass

Charles's Law

states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept constant

law of multiple proportions

states that whenever the same two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers

chemical property

the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change

percent error

the absolute value of the error divided by the accepted value, multiplied by 100%

hydrogenation reaction

the addition of hydrogen to a carbon-carbon double bond to produce an alkane

hydration reaction

the addition of water to an alkene

peptide bond

the amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen in the amino group of the next amino acid in the peptide chain

buffer capacity

the amount of acid or base that can be added to a buffer solution before a significant change in pH occurs

quantum

the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another

specific heat

the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance exactly 1°C

molar heat of vaporization (∆H^vap)

the amount of heat necessary to vaporize one mole of a given liquid

heat capacity

the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of an object exactly 1°C

molar heat of condensation (∆H^cond)

the amount of heat released when 1 mol of vapor condenses at the normal boiling point

actual yield

the amount of product that forms when the reaction is carried out in the laboratory

atomic number

the amount of protons in an element

solubility

the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution

Physical Chemistry

the area of study that deals with the mechanism, rate, and the energy transfer that occurs when matter undergoes change

Analytical Chemistry

the area of study that focuses on the composition of matter

molar mass

the atomic mass of an element expressed in grams

kilogram (kg)

the basic SI unit mass

empirical formula

the basic ratio gives the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms of the elements in a compound

meter (m)

the basic unit of length

normal boiling point

the boiling point of a liquid at a pressure of 101.3 kPa

stoichiometry

the calculation of quantities in chemical reactions

salt hydrolosis

the cations or anions of a dissociated salt remove hydrogen ions from or donate hydrogen ions to water

standard heat of formation (∆H^f^0)

the change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound form its elements with all substances in their standard states

molecular formula

the chemical formula of a molecular compound

reactant

the chemical present at the start of the reaction

hybridization

the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory

partial pressure

the contribution each gas in a mixture makes to the total pressure

transmutation

the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element

error

the difference between the accepted value and the experimental value

cell potential

the difference between the reduction potentials of the two half-cells

boiling-point elevation

the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent

freezing-point depression

the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent

solute

the dissolved particles

solvent

the dissolving medium

wavelength (λ)

the distance between the crests

electron configuration

the distribution of electrons in an atom

anode

the electrode at which oxidization occurs

cathode

the electrode at which reduction occurs

valence electrons

the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an element's atoms

kinetic energy

the energy an object has from its motion

bond dissociation energy

the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms

ionization energy

the energy required to remove an electron from an atom

chemical potential energy

the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance

molar heat of solution (∆H^soln)

the enthalpy change caused by dissolution of one mole of substance

heat of reaction

the enthalpy change for the chemical equation exactly as it is written

metabolism

the entire set of chemical reactions carried out by a specific organism

s orbital

the first energy level; has only one orbital (2 electrons)

energy levels

the fixed energies an electron can have

Molar heat of Fusion (∆H^fus)

the heat absorbed by one mole of a solid substance as it melts to a liquid at constant temperature

enthalpy (H)

the heat content of a system at constant pressure

molar heat of solidification (∆H^solid)

the heat lost when one mole of a liquid solidifies at a constant temperature

combustion

the heat of reaction for the complete burning of one mole of a substance

saponification

the hydrolysis of oils or fats by boiling with an aqueous solution of an alkali-metal hydroxide

surface tension

the inward force, or pull, that tends to minimize the surface area of a liquid

dehydrogenation reaction

the loss of hydrogen in a reaction

common ion effect

the lowering of the solubility of an ionic compound as a result of the addition of a common ion

ground state

the lowest possible energy of an electron

formula unit

the lowest whole number ratio of ions in an ionic compound

"Law of Conservation of Mass (and Energy)"

the masses (and energy and charge) of the reactants in a chemical equation is always equal to the masses (and energy and charge) of the products

Gibbs free-energy change (∆G)

the maximum amount of energy that can be coupled to another process to do useful work

theoretical yield

the maximum amount of product that could be formed from given amount of reactants1

Technology

the means by which a society provides itself for innovative ways to solve problems

standard cell potential (E>cel<0)

the measured cell potential when the ion concentrations in the half-cells are 1M, any gasses are at 101 kPa and the temperature is 25°C

activation energy

the minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react

pH

the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration

The Rutherford Atomic Model

the nucleus is tiny compared to the entirety of an atom

In a neutral atom, the number of protons =

the number of electrons, that way the positive and negative charges cancel out.

coordination number

the number of ions of opposite charge that surround an ion in a crystal

molality

the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent

Molarity (M)

the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution

what determines an element?

the number of protons in the nucleus

The atomic number is equal to

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Avagadro's Number

the number of representative particles in a mole

frequency (v)

the number of wave cycles a wave passes in a certain unit of time

Molar Mass

the numeric equivalent of the atomic mass in grams

system

the part of the universe on which you focus your attention

conjugate acid

the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion

conjugate base

the particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen ion

radiation

the penetrating rays and particles emitted by a radioactive source

percent composition

the percent by mass of each element in the compound

active site

the place on which the enzyme binds

end point

the point at which the indicator changes color

polysaccharides

the polymers produced by the linkage of many monosaccharide monomers

calorimetry

the precise measurement of the heat flow into or out of a system of chemical and physical processes

standard atmosphere (atm)

the pressure required to support 760 mm of mercury in a barometer at 25 degrees celcius

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

the principle that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time

radioactivity

the process by which materials give off rays

solvation

the process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded by solvent molecules

electrolysis

the process in which electrical energy is used to bring about a chemical change

filtration

the process that separates a solid from a liquid in a heterogeneous mixture

distillation

the process where a liquid is boiled to produce vapor that is then condensed into a liquid

fermentation

the production of ethanol from sugars by the action of yeast or bacteria

calorie (cal)

the quantity of heat that raises the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1 degree Celsius

chemical equilibrium

the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal

equilibrium constant (K^eq)

the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations at equilibrium, which each concentration raised to a power equal to the number of moles of that substance in the balanced equation

percent yield

the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent

base dissociation constant (K>b)

the ratio of the concentration of the conjugate acid times the concentration of the hydroxide ion to the concentration of the conjugate base

acid dissociation constant (K>a)

the ratio of the concentration of the dissociated form of an acid to the concentration of the dissociated form

Density

the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume D=m/v

mole fraction

the ratio of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute

excess reagent

the reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction

self-ionization

the reaction in which water molecules produce ions

first-order reaction

the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of only one reactant

band of stability

the region containing stable nuclei

phase diagram

the relationships among the different states of a substance as shown on a graph

Lewis electron dot diagram

the representation of an atom, ion or molecule, in which the element symbols stand for the nucleus and all inner level electrons while dots stand for outer level electrons

accepted value

the right answer

Tyndall Effect

the scattering of visible light by colloidal particles

Alexander Flemming

the scientist that discovered penicillin from mold growing on bacteria

George De Mestral

the scientist who created hook and lope tape by analyzing burrs under a microscope and looking at the structure

reaction mechanism

the series of elementary reactions or steps that take place during the course of a complex reaction

pi bond

the side-by-side overlap of atomic p orbitals

monosaccharides

the simplest carbohydrate molecules called simple sugars

element

the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties

hydrocarbons

the simplest organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon

atom

the smallest particle of an element that retains its identity in a chemical reaction

standard solution

the solution of the known concentration

representative particles

the species present in a substance: usually atoms, molecules or formula units

atomic emission spectrum

the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state

fission

the splitting of a nucleus into smaller fragments

Organic Chemistry

the study of all chemicals containing carbon

Inorganic Chemistry

the study of chemicals that, in general, do not contain carbon

thermochemistry

the study of energy changes that occur during chemical reactions and changes in state

Biochemistry

the study of processes that take place in organisims

Chemistry

the study of the composition of matter and the changes that matter undergoes

oxidizing agent

the substance that accepts electrons

reducing agent

the substance that looses electrons

anabolism

the synthesis reactions of metabolism

melting point (mp)

the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid

boiling point (bp)

the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is just equal to the external pressure on the liquid

reduction potential

the tendency of a given half-reaction to occur as reduction

diffusion

the tendency of molecules to move toward areas of lower concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout

half-life (t>1/2)

the time required for one half of the nuclei of a radioisotope sample to decay to products

mass number

the total of protons and neutrons in an atom

Van Der Waals Forces

the two weakest attractions between molecules; dipole and dispersion

electron configuration

the ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms

absolute zero

the zero point of Kelvin or -273.15 degrees Celsius

macroscopic

things big enough to be seen by the human eye

microscopic

things that can only be seen under magnification

polyatomic ions

tightly bound groups of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge

nucleus

tiny central core of an atom composed of protons and neutrons

What is Uranium-238 (U-238) used for?

to determine the age of rocks

Pauli exclusion principle

to occupy the same orbital electrons must have opposite spins

What is cobalt-60 9 (Co-60) used for?

to treat cancer tumors

What Iodine-131 (I-131) used for?

to treat thyroid disorders

nuclear equations

total of the atomic number and the total of the mass number must be equal on both sides

sigma bond

two atomic orbitals that combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting two atomic nuclei

single covalent bond

two atoms held together by sharing a pair of electrons

Covalent bonds form when...

two atoms share a pair of electrons.

miscible

two liquids that dissolve in each other at all proportions

allotropes

two or more different forms of the same element in the same physical state

molecules are

two or more different or same atoms chemically bonded together

phase

used to describe any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties

What is Carbon-14 (c-14) used for?

used to determine the age of organic material up to 23,000 years old

liter (l)

used to measure liquids; the volume of a cube that is 10 centimeters along each edge

Dot models

used to represent the formation of ions or covalent molecules

roman numerals

used to show the positive oxidation number of the cation if it has more than one positive oxidation number

standard hydrogen potential

used with other electrodes so the reduction potentials of the other cells can be measured

scintillation counter

uses a phosphor-coated surface to detect radiation

What are groups on the periodic table?

vertical columns

fuel cells

voltaic cells in which a fuel substance undergoes oxidation and from which electrical energy is continuously obtained

Dalton's model of the atom

was a solid sphere of matter that was uniform throughout

aqueous solution

water that contains dissolved substances

effusion

when a gas escapes through a tiny hole in a container

Artificial (Induced) Transmutation

when a nucleus is bombarded with a nucleon, an alpha particle or another small nucleus (high kinetic energy), resulting in a nuclide with a different proton number (a different element).

equivalence point

when an acid and a base are mixed together the number of moles of hydrogen ions equals the number of hydroxide ions

periodic law

when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties

chemical reaction

when one or more substances change into one or more new substances

physical change

when some properties of a material change, but the composition of the material does not change

nonpolar covalent bond

when the bonding electrons are shared equally

oxidation-number change method

when you balance a redox equation by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers

observation

when you use your senses to obtain information

half-reaction method

when you write and balance the oxidization and reduction half-reactions separately before combining them into a balanced redox equation

Coefficients

written in front of the formulas of reactants and products in chemical equations. They give us the ratios of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation

cracking

a controlled process by which hydrocarbons are broken down or rearranged into smaller, more useful molecules

polar covalent bond

a covalent bond between atoms in which the electrons are shared unequally

coordinate covalent bond

a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons

barometer

a device that is used to measure atmospheric pressure

nuclide

a distinct kind of atom or nucleus characterized by a specific number of protons and neutrons.

weight

a force that measures the pull on a given mass by gravity

polymer

a large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of reapeating smaller molecules

photosynthesis

a light-capturing system that converts light energy into chemical energy

scientific method

a logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem

Nucleon

a proton or neutron

The mass number is equal to

an atom's number of protons and neutrons added together

beta particle

an electron resulting from the breaking apart of a neutron in an atom

common ion

an ion that is found in both salts in a solution

Matter

anything that has mass and occupies space

halide ions

ions that are produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons

number of valence electrons

is equal to the last digit of an element's group number

Valance electrons

outermost electrons

+ - + - +

particles spread throughout

protons

positively charged subatomic particles

melting

solid to liquid

aliphatic hydrocarbons

straight-chain and branched-chain alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes

neutron

subatomic particles with no charge but a mass nearly equal to that of a proton

Binary compounds

substances made up of only two kinds kind of atoms.

hydroxyl group

the OH functional group for alcohols

joule (j)

the SI unit for energy

pascal (Pa)

the SI unit for pressure

Elements of Group 1 are called ____________.

alkali metals

fatty acids

continuous-chain carboxylic acids

sublimation

solid to gas

gram means

volume (m^3)

Substitutional alloy

Alloy formed when atoms of similar size replace other atoms in the crystal lattice.

Anions - Nonmetals usually gain electrons

An atom that has gained electrons and now has a negative charge. Which type of elements generally make anions?

Cation - Metals usually give away electrons.

An atom that has lost one or more electrons and now has a positive charge. Which type of elements generally make cations?

Aufbau Principle

An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it

radioisotopes

An isotope that has an unstable nucleus and undergoes radioactive decay

ideal gas law

P X V = n X R X T

Deposition

Phase change from G -> S

Chemical bond

The force that holds two atoms together; may form by the attraction of cations for anions or by sharing electrons.

Frequency - Hertz = waves/second (pp 137, 140)

The number of waves that pass a given point per second. What are the units? What is the formula?

Covalent bond

The sharing of electrons (in pairs) in overlapping orbitals between 2 nonmetal atoms.

Formula unit

The simplest ratio of cations and anions in an ionic compound.

Atom

The smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element.

Triple bond are stronger than double bonds and double bonds are stronger than single bonds.

Which is the strongest covalent bond?

The blanks in Mendeleev's periodic table represented what?

Yet to be discovered elements.

Where are the metalloids found on the periodic table?

You should be able to list all 8. B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At

triple covalent bond

a bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons

Metallic bonds

a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them

double covalent bond

a bond that involves two shared pairs of electrons

asymmetric carbon

a carbon with four different atoms or groups attached

chemical change

a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original matter

thermochemical equation

a chemical equation that includes the enthalpy change

electrolyte

a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or in the molten state

acid

a compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen Ions (H+) when dissolved in water.

hydrate

a compound that contains water of hydration

nonelectrolyte

a compound that does not conduct an electric current in either an aqueous solution or a molten state

carbonxyllic acid

a compound with a carboxyl group

neutron activation analysis

a procedure used to detect trace amounts of elements in samples

endothermic process

a process that absorbs heat from the surroundings

neutron absorption

a process that decreases the number of slow moving neutrons

gases (also)

are easily compressed and have no definite shape of volume

Visible light

divides into a spectrum of colors

photons

light quanta

molecular orbitals

orbitals that apply to the entire molecule

radioisotopes

the nuclei of unstable isotopes

experimental value

the recorded value that is measured in a lab

Mass

A measurement that reflects the amount of matter in something. Measured on a balance. Does not change!

basic solution (alkali solution)

a solution where H>+ is less than OH>-

Pure Chemistry

the pursuit of chemical knowledge for it's own sake

dependent variable (responding variable)

the variable that is observed or measured during an experiment

independent variable (manipulated variable)

the variable that you change during an experiment

amplitude

the wave's height from zero to crest

titration

the process of adding a known amount of solution of known concentration to determine the concentration of another solution

catabolism

the process of breaking down unneeded cellular components and the nutrients in food into simpler compounds by chemical reactions

natural transmutation

the process of one element changing into another (alpha, beta, gamma)

degrees celsius =

K - 273

What experiments did Bohr do?

Spectroscopy

Diagonal rule

This is upside down from how we did it in class.

d orbitals

five orbitals

energy

the capacity to do work or to produce heat

JJ Thompson

-discovered electrons -cathode ray tube -plum pudding model

substrates

the molecules on which an enzyme acts

Electrons are found in

"clouds" (orbitals) around an atom's nucleus/

gram (g)

1/1000th of a kilogram

How do you name binary ionic compounds?

write the name of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the name of the negative ion (anion) with the name ending in "-ide."