Chemistry
how to convert metric units
(K)ing (H)enry (D)ied by (d)rinking (c)hocolate (m)ilk; kilo - hecto - deca - (by) base - deci - centi - milli
particle from lowest to highest penetrating power
(alpha, beta, gamma)
significant figures rule #5
*look to workbook*=
What did John Dalton do for the model of the atom?
- Matter is composed of small particles called atoms -Atoms are indivisible and indestructible -Atoms of an element are all identical (size, mass, and properties) -Each type of element has atoms that are different from atoms of another element -Atoms combine to make compounds -In chemical reactions, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged (Conserved).
Gold-Foil experiment
-Rutherford created a narrow beam of alpha particles and directed it at gold-foil -majority of the particles passed right through while a few were deflected at wide angles -as a result of this experiment Rutherford concluded that the atom was mostly made up of empty space
actinides
-any of the elements actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, and lawrencium -large range of physical properties
post transition metals
-any of the elements aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium, tin, lead, bismuth, polonium, and flerovium -physically, post-transition metals are soft (or brittle), have poor mechanical strength, and have melting points lower than those of the transition metals
lanthaniods
-any of the elements lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium -known as rare earth elements
transition metals
-any of the elements scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, copernicium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium and hassium -Chemically they show variable valence and a strong tendency to form coordination compounds, and many of their compounds are colored
octet rule
-atoms need 8 valence electrons to be stable -they will get 8 valence electrons by any means necessary -chemically stable = complete valence shell
Robert A. Milikan
-carried out experiments to find the quantity of charge carried by an electron -he used this value and found the charge to mass ratio measured by Thompson
James Chadwick
-discovered neutrons -experiment based on characteristics of electrons and protons
Earnest Rutherford
-discovered the nucleus -gold foil experiment -atoms are mostly empty space
Erwin Schrodinger
-electron cloud model -areas of probability -electrons act like waves
valence electrons
-electrons on the outer shells -the valence are the only electrons that are involved in reactions -all Noble Gases have their outer shell completely full -go up across table (except transition metals) -Helium has 2 -Group 1 = 1 valence electrons -Group 2 =2 valence electrons -Group 13 = 3 valence electrons -Group 14 = 4 valence electrons -Group 15 = 5 valence electrons -Group 16 = 6 valence electrons -Group 17 = 7 valence electrons -Group 18 = 8 valence electrons
Neils Bohr
-electrons orbit in energy levels -energy the change in levels -solar system model
ionic bonds
-electrostatic forces that holds ions together in ionic compounds -take an electron
VSEPR theory
-explains the three-dimensional shape of methane -the repulsion between electron pairs causes molecular shapes to adjust so that the valence electron pairs stay as far apart as possible
metals
-good conductors of heat and electric current -high luster, or sheen -sheen caused by the its ability to reflect light -all are solids at room temperature, except Mercury (Hg) -all are ductile, or can be turned into wires -most are malleable and can be hammered into sheets without breaking
pnictogens
-group 15A -any of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth -they have five valence electrons, all are solid at room temperature except, nitrogen
chalcogens
-group 16A -any of the elements oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium -lighter elements are important to life, while heavier ones are toxic
halogens
-group 17A -any of the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine -They are reactive nonmetallic elements that form strongly acidic compounds with hydrogen, from which simple salts can be made
noble gases
-group 18A -any of the gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon -They were long believed to be totally unreactive but compounds of xenon, krypton, and radon are now known
alkali metals
-group 1A -any of the elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium -They are very reactive, electropositive, monovalent metals forming strongly alkaline hydroxides
alkaline earth metals
-group 2A -any of the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium -They are reactive, electropositive, divalent metals, and form basic oxides that react with water to form comparatively insoluble hydroxides
representative elements
-groups 1A-7A -they display a wide range of physical and chemical properties
metalloids
-have properties like metals and nonmetals -in some conditions they behave like metals, in others they behave like nonmetals
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
-invented a balance that can measure mass to the nearest 0.0005 grams -revolutionized chemistry
nonmetals
-most are gases at room temperature -a few are solids, like sulfur and phosphorus -one is a liquid; bromine -poor conductors of heat and electric current; Carbon is the exception -tend to be brittle
Eugen Goldstein
-observed a cathode-ray tube and found rays traveling in the direction opposite of the cathode rays -he called them canal waves and found they had positive particles
Biotechnology
-technology that applies to the production of biological products or processes -based on the DNA sequence
electronegativity
-the ability to attract electrons -atoms that are electronegative tend to hold electrons tightly
Brownian Motion
-the chaotic movement of colloidal particles -caused by collisions of the molecules of the dispersion medium with the small, dispersed particles
oxidation number
-the number of electrons lost or gained; includes a charge -Group 1 has an oxidation number of +1, because it looses 1 electron -Group 2 has an oxidation number of +2, because it looses 2 electrons -Group 13 has an oxidation number of +3, because it looses 3 electrons -Group 14 has an oxidation number of+4/-4, because it can either loose 4 electrons or gain 4 electrons -Group 15 has an oxidation number of -3, because it gains 3 electrons -Group 16 has an oxidation number of -2, because it gains 2 electrons -Group 17 has an oxidation number of -1, because it gains 1 electron -Group 18 doesn't gain or loose any electrons
substances that sublime
-turn from a solid directly into a gas; very weak attractive forces (CO2 & I2)
How many significant digits in 1440?
0 - counting numbers and definitions are infinitely precise.
Dalton's Atomic Theory
1. All elements are composed of tiny invisible particles called atoms 2. Atoms of the same element are identical. The atoms of one element are different from those of any other element 3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or can chemically combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds 4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are separated, joined, or rearranged. Atoms of one element, however, are never changed into atoms of another element as a result of a chemical reaction
Kinetic Theory
1. all matter is made of particles 2. particles are in constant motion 3. energy makes particles move faster
Unit analysis: Convert 132,540 cm to km
132,540 cm x 1m/100cm x 1km/1000m = 1.32540 km
C-14 has what atomic number?
14 - number of neutrons
What is the maximum number of electrons in each principle energy level?
1st-2, 2nd=8, 3rd-18, 4th-32, 5th=32, 6th=18, 7th=8
How many significant digits in 230mL?
2
What is the maximum number of electrons any orbital can hold?
2
mixtures are
2 or more elements/substances that aren't bonded
Which electron configuration is correct for a fluoride ion?
2-8
How many total atoms are found in (NH4)3PO4?
20 = 3N, 12H, 1P, and 4O
Which correctly represents an atom of neon containing 11 neutrons? 11Ne 21Ne 20Ne 22Ne
21Ne
molar volume of a gas
22.4 L
A mole of a gas at STP occupies
22.4 liters
How many significant digits in 0.00540 sec?
3
Orbitals
3D regions of space where electrons probably exist.
What is the mass number of an atom with 18 protons and 22 neutrons?
40
mole (mol)
6.02 X 10^23
mole
6.02 x 10^23
Avogadro's number
6.02 x 10^23; the number of particles in 1 mole of a substance
Find the average atomic mass of lithium if 7.4% are 6Li and 92.6% are 7Li
6.926 amu
How many principle energy levels are there on the periodic table?
7
octet
8 valence electrons in outer shell (most stable at this point); tend to form ions to obtain such a configuration of electrons.
Crystal Lattice
A 3D geometric arrangement of particles in which each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ions.
Chemical change
A change in the identity of a material that results in a different material with different composition and properties. Ex. Sodium and Chlorine reacting to make table salt.
Physical change
A change that can alter the physical properties of a substance without changing its identity. Ex. cutting paper.
ion
A charged atom
Sigma bonds
A covalent bond that forms when orbitals overlap end to end. Usually found in single bonds and the first bond of a double or triple bond.
Pi bond
A covalent bond that forms when orbitals overlap side to side. Usually found in double and triple bonds.
Weight
A measure of an amount of matter and also the effect of the Earth's gravitational pull on the matter. Measured on a scale. Can change based on gravity!
Heterogeneous mixture
A mixture of 2 or more substances in separate phases, such as a suspension. Ex. Pizza
Alloy
A mixture of elements that has metallic properties.
Homogeneous mixture
A mixture that shows only a single phase with uniform properties throughout, such as a solution. Ex. Salt water
Percent by Mass (p87)
A percentage by mass of each element in a compound. Formula = Mass of element/Mass of compound x 100
Extensive physical property
A physical property that depends on the amount of the substance present. Ex Mass
Intensive physical property
A physical property that is independent of amount of substance and is based on what the substance is. Ex density Note: all chemical properties as intensive!!
Chemical Property
A property of matter that describes how one substance reacts in the presence of another substance or condition. Ex. Hydrogen combusts in the presence of oxygen.
Compound
A pure substance that consists of two or more different elements chemically bonded together. Ex. NaCl
Element
A pure substance whose atoms all have the same atomic number and cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means into a more stable and simpler substance. Ex. Sodium
Crystallization
A separation technique that produces pure solid particles of a substance from a homogeneous solution that contains a dissolved substance.
Distillation
A technique that can be used to physically separate most homogeneous mixture based on the differences in the boiling points of the substances.
Filtration
A technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a liquid in a heterogeneous mixture.
Hypothesis
A tentative, testable statement or prediction about what has been observed.
monoprotic acids
Acids that contain one ionizable hydrogen
triprotic acids
Acids that contain three ionizable hydrogens
diprotic acids
Acids that contain two ionizable hydrogens
Where are the transuranium elements found on the periodic table?
All elements after #92 - Uranium are transuranium elements. These are all man-made.
significant figures rule #1
All non-zero digits are significant.
Interstitial alloy
Alloy formed when a much smaller atom fill in the spaces between the other atoms in the crystal lattice.
Theory
An explanation supported by many experiments; is still subject to new experimental data, can be modified, and is considered valid if it can be used to make predictions that are proven true.
Orbital notation
An expression that represents the principle energy levels, sublevels, orbitals and electrons in an atom using lines for orbitals and arrows for electrons. Ex. Oxygen
Physical Property
Any property of matter that can be observed or measured without altering its chemical composition. Ex. Density of Iron
significant figures rule #2
Any zero that is between two significant digits is also significant.
Rutherford discovered what about the atom?
Atom is mostly empty space, tiny/dense nucleus, and positive protons.
Mendeleev organized his periodic table by ...
Atomic mass
Octet rule
Atoms gain, lose or share electrons in an effort to gain a full valence level.
Ions
Atoms that have gained or lost electron and now have an imbalance of protons and electrons.
Isotope
Atoms with the same number of protons (same element) but different numbers of neutrons. Ex. Carbon-12 and Carbon - 14
Which of the following will form an ion with a a smaller radius than that of its atom? Cl N Br Ba
Ba (barium)
Meter (M)
Base unit for length.
Kilogram (kg)
Base unit for mass
Kelvin (K)
Base unit for temperature
Second (sec)
Base unit for time
Label the parts of a wave - crest, trough, wavelength, and amplitude
Be able to calculate waves/sec.
Know how to name ionic compounds - all forms (pp222, 224
Be able to name covalent compounds and acids. pp248-252
degrees kelvin =
C + 273
Formulas for temperature conversions
C = 5/9(F - 32) F = 9/5C + 32 C = K -273 K = C + 273 (pp34-35)
Isotopes are written in a number of ways:
C-14 is Carbon-14 and is also written with 14 as the mass number
Which has the greatest nuclear charge? Cl-35 Ar-40 K-39 Ca-40
Ca-40
What experiments did Thomson do?
Cathode ray tube experiments
Properties of solids
Definite shape and volume, is incompressible, and expands slightly when heated. High density. Particles are held in place by strong forces of attraction, touching on all sides (locked in place), with low KE energy.
Properties of liquids
Definite volume and indefinite shape (takes on the shape of its container). Is incompressible and expands slightly when heated. High density. Particle are touching but have the ability to slide and move around. Balance between attractive forces and KE.
Qualitative data
Describes a quality of something, like the color, shape, etc.
What is a problem associated with nuclear reactors?
Disposal of radioactive waste is a problem associated with nuclear reactors.
What did Antoine Lavoisier doe for the periodic table?
Divided all known elements into 4 groups: Gases, Metals, Nonmetals, and Earths
The atom is smaller than the anion (gaining valence electrons so the ion has more electrons than protons).
Do ionic radii increase or decrease in the formation of anions?
The atom is larger than the cation (losing valence electrons in outermost energy level).
Do ionic radii increase or decrease in the formation of cations?
Properties of metallic bonds
Electron Sea Model. Form solid crystals with high densities, moderately high melting points, shiny luster, malleable, ductile and good conductors of heat and electricity because of their delocalized electrons.
Chemical bonds between atoms involve the rearrangement of ____________ to maximize stability?
Electrons
JJ Thomson discovered what part of the atom?
Electrons and the atom is neutral.
Neils Bohr contributed what to our atomic model?
Energy Levels
Diatomic element - H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Exist naturally when 2 atoms of the same element share electrons (covalent bond). These molecules are more stable this way. List all 7.
Polyatomic element - P4 (phosphorus), O3 (ozone), S8 (sulfur)
Exist naturally when multiple atoms of the same element share electrons (covalent bond). These molecules are more stable this way. Give an example.
What is the trend for electron affinity on the periodic table?
Family = decreases Period = increases
What is the trend for ionization energy on the periodic table?
Family = decreases Period = increases
What is the trend for electronegativity on the periodic table?
Family = decreases Period = increases A measure of the desire of an atom to add and electron when BONDING! Highest = F Lowest = Francium
What is the trends for atomic radius on the periodic table?
Family = increases Period = decreases
Properties of ionic bonds
Form solid crystals with high melting and boiling points, and high densities. They will split or cleave along flat surfaces to maintain the proper formula unit ratio. Solids do not conduct electricity, but they will when melted or dissolved in water.
Why do atoms bond?
Gain stability and lose energy
Properties of nonmetals. Where are they located on the periodic table?
Generally gases, 1 liquid, or crumbly solids. Insulators because they do not conduct electricity or heat. Found on the right side of the periodic table.
SI prefixes - Know prefixes and symbols from Giga- to nano-
Giga (G) = 1, 000,000,000 kilo (k) = 1000 deci (d) = 1/10th centi (c) = 1/100th milli (m) = 1/1000th micro (u) = 1/1,000,000th nano (n) = 1/1,000,000,000th
What experiments did Rutherford do?
Gold Foil experiments
Properties of metals. Where are they located on the periodic table?
Good conductors of heat and electricity,hard, lustrous, malleable and ductile. Found on left and middle of periodic table.
Where are alkali metals found on the periodic table?
Group 1 or family 1A
Where are the halogens found on the periodic table?
Group 17 or family 7A
Where are the noble gases found on the periodic table?
Group 18 or family 8A
Where are the alkaline earth metals found on the periodic table?
Group 2 or family 2A
solids
Have a definite shape and volume, and particles vibrate around a fixed axis
Period/Series
Horizontal row on the periodic table.
Periods
Horizontal rows on the periodic table. Tell how many energy levels an atom has and which energy level hold the valence electrons for that element.
1 = 1, 2 = 4, 3 = 9, 4 = 16, 5 = 16, 6 = 9, 7 = 4
How many orbitals are in each principle energy level?
significant figures rule #4
In a decimal value, trailing zeroes (zeroes after the last non-zero decimal place) are significant. (0.100 has 3 sig figs)
Control
In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison.
Independent variable
In an experiment, the variable that the experimenter plans or chooses to change. Graphed on the X-axis.
Dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable whose value depends on the independent variable. It is the measurable outcome. Graphed on the Y-axis.
Elements that are physically and chemically similar to each other occur where on the periodic table? Why?
In families (vertical columns) because they have similar electron configurations.
Vaporization
Includes: Boiling and evaporating. Phase change from L -> G
Properties of gases
Indefinite shape and volume. Compressible, expand to fill container, low density, effuse and diffuse. Particles move independently of each other with lots of KE.
Which has the greatest atomic number? S Cl Ar K
K (19)
Know how electron configuration changes for an ion!
Know how to make formulas for ionic compounds using oxidation numbers. pp220, 222
significant figures rule #3
Leading zeros (zeroes that occur before the first non-zero digit) are never significant.
Properties of covalent bonds
Makes gas, liquid, and solids with low melting points at room temperature. Solids have low densities and are brittle crystals. Exist in a wide array of colors and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are insulators.
Law of Conservation of Mass (p78)
Mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction, but is conserved. Mass before the reaction = Mass after the reaction.
Atomic radii
Metals - 1/2 the distance between two adjacent atoms in a crystal. Nonmetals - 1/2 the distance between the nuclei of a molecule of identical atoms.
Beta particles
Negatively charged particle (electron) is ejected from the nucleus. (losing neutron and gaining proton). weak force
Electrons
Negatively charged particles found outside the nucleus. In neutral atoms, the number of electrons = the number of protons. Has a mass of approximately 1/1840th of an amu.
Neutrons
Neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Has a mass of approximately 1 amu.
Chadwick discovered what part of the atom?
Neutrons
Where is most of the mass of an atom found?
Nucleus
Valence electrons
Number of electrons found in an atoms outer-most energy level. These are the electrons used in bonding.
Atomic mass number
Number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Atomic number
Number of protons in an atom. Gives identity.
Quantitative data
Numerical data. 1 foot
What can be changed when balancing chemical equations?
ONLY COEFFICIENTS!
Where is most of the size (volume) of an atom found?
Orbitals
Electromagnetic Wave Relationship - formula
P 140
Energy of a photon - formula
P 143
Condensation
Phase change from G -> L
Freezing
Phase change from L -> S
Sublimation
Phase change from S -> G
Melting
Phase change from S ->L
+ - + -
Positive & negative
Alpha particles
Positively charged particles ejected from unstable nucleus (alpha particle has same composition as helium nucleus). you are solving for whats left behind after alpha particle has left.
Protons
Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Has a mass of approximately 1 amu.
What is today's model of the atom called? How does it look at the electron?
Quantum model Electron - wave
Law of Definite Proportions (p88)
Regardless of the amount, a compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportions by mass. Formula = Mass of element/Mass of compound x 100
Drawing ionic bonds (all 3 steps)
Remember in the second step, ions should be in [ ] and third step has the correct formula.
Moseley's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...
Reorganized the table by atomic number and gave us the Modern Periodic Law.
What is the name for the A groups on the periodic table?
Representative elements
hertz (Hz)
SI unit for cycles per second
Properties of metalloids. Where are they located on the periodic table?
Share properties of metals and nonmetals. Metallic luster, but crumbly and brittle solids. Conduct electricity but not as well as metals. Found along the stair-step line.
Know how to draw Electron-dot structures (Lewis dot) for all elements.
Shows valence electrons (s and p sublevel).
Why do elements in the same group or family have similar properties?
Similar electron configuration.
List the 4 types of covalent bonds.
Single, double, triple, and coordinate
molecular substances
Substances containing mostly covalent bonds; They are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals or stronger hydrogen attractions (carbon monoxide.
ionic compounds
Substances containing mostly ionic bonds
Which has the greatest number of nucleons? Sn-119 Sb-122 Te-128 I-127
Te-128
Newland's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...
The Law of Octaves. The properties of every eighth elements repeats when organized by atomic mass.
Density D = m/V g/mL or g/cm3 or kg/L (pp36-37)
The amount of mass per unit of volume. It is a physical property. What is the formula? What are the units?
Electron configuration
The arrangement of electrons in an atom: a number represents the energy level, a letter represents the sublevel, and an superscripted number represents the number of electrons. Ex. H - 1s1
Metallic bond
The communal sharing of electrons between metallic cations. Also known as the Electron Sea Theory.
Ionic Bond (Binary ionic bond is when there are only 2 different elements present - a metal and a nonmetal).
The electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles (cations and anions) together.
Ionization Energy
The energy added/required to remove an electron from an atom to make a cation.
Electron affinity
The energy released when an electron is added to an atom to form an anion.
Atomic mass
The weighted average of all of the isotopes of an element.
Where are the transition metals found on the periodic table?
These are the B-groups
Where are the inner transition metals found on the periodic table?
These include the lanthanides and actinides.
What is the name for the B groups on the periodic table?
Transition elements
Dobreiner's contribution to the development of the periodic table was ...
Triads - groups of 3 elements with similar properties.
Polyatomic ion
Two or more covalently bonded atoms that often act as single charged particles in chemical reactions.
Family/Group
Vertical column on the periodic table
Number of electrons transferred and size of ions bonding. Be sure you can rank ionic compounds by bond strength.
What are the 2 things that affect the lattice energy of an ionic compound?
Positive = as the independent variable increases so does the dependent variable. Negative = as the independent variable increases, the dependent variable decreases.
What does a positive slope of a line tell you? What does a negative slope of a line tell you?
% error = |error|/actual value x 100 (pp48-49)
What is the formula for % error?
1 = s, 2 = s & p, 3 = s, p, d, 4 = s, p, d, f, 5 = s, p, d, f 6 = s, p, d, 7 = s & p
What sublevels are in each of the 7 principle energy levels?
Law of Multiple Proportions (p89)
When different compounds are formed by the combination of the same elements, they will have different mass ratios of their elements. Formula of compound 1 = Mass of element 1/ Mass of element 2 Formula of compound 2 = Mass of element 1/ Mass of element 2
decomposition reaction
a chemical change in which a single compound breaks down into two or more products
combustion reaction
a chemical change in which an element or a compound reacts with oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat or light
single-replacement reaction
a chemical change in which one element replaces a second element in a compound
double-replacement reaction
a chemical change in which there is an exchange of positive ions between two compounds
combination reaction
a chemical change in which two or more substances react to form a single new substance
skeleton equation
a chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts of the reactants and products
pollutant
a chemical found in air, water, or soil that is harmful to humans or other organisms
halocarbons
a class of organic compounds containing covalently bonded flourine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine
emulsion
a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a liquid
fractional distillation
a common method to separate and collect: hydrocarbons, ionic solids, metals, & precipitates
molecular compound
a compound composed of molecules
binary compound
a compound composed of two elements and can be either ionic or molecular
ether
a compound in which oxygen is bonded to two carbon groups
scientific law
a concise statement that summarizes the results many observations and experiments
electrode
a conductor in a circuit that carries electrons to form a substance other than a metal
mole ratio
a conversion factor derived from the coefficients of a balanced chemical equation interpreted in terms of moles
liquid
a form of matter that has an indefinite shape, flows, yet has a fixed volume
solid
a form of matter that has definite shape and volume
gas
a form of matter that takes both the shape and volume of it's container
carbonyl group
a functional group with the general structure C=O
Geiger counter
a gas-filled metal tube used to detect radiation
scientific notation
a given number is written a the product of two numbers a coefficient and 10 raised to a power
battery
a group of cells connected together
homologous series
a group of compounds
chemical symbol
a group of one or two letters that represent an element on the periodic table
colloid
a heterogeneous mixture containing particles that range in size from 1 and 1000 nm
gamma ray
a high-energy photon emitted by a radioisotope
solution
a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
alkane
a hydrocarbon in which there are only covalent bonds
alkyl group
a hydrocarbon substituent
Electronegativity is...
a measure of an element's attraction for electrons
temperature
a measure of how hot or cold an object
compressibility
a measure of how much the volume of matter decreases under pressure
rate
a measure of speed of any change that occurs within an interval of time
mass
a measure of the amount of matter an object contains
concentration
a measure of the amount of solute that is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
entropy (S)
a measure of the disorder of a system
vapor pressure
a measure of the force excreted by a gas above a liquid
volume
a measure of the space occupied by an object
significant figures
a measurement include all of the digits that are known, plus a last digit that is estimated
suspension
a mixture from which particles settle out upon standing
heterogeneous mixture
a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout
homogeneous mixture
a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout
bonding orbital
a molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond
diatomic molecule
a molecule consisting of two atoms
dipole
a molecule that has two poles
Adonosine Triphosphate (ATP)
a molecule that transmits energy in the cells of living organisms
molecules
a neutral group of atoms joined together covalent bonds
positron
a particle with the mass of an electron but has a positive charge
protein
a peptide with more than 100 amino acids
mixture
a physical blend of two or more components
oxidation number
a positive or negative number assigned to an atom to indicate its degree of oxidation or reduction
experiment
a procedure that is used to test a hypothesis
exothermic process
a process that releases heat to its surroundings
neutron moderation
a process that slows down neutrons so the reactor fuel captures them to continue the chain reaction
intermediate
a product of one of the steps in the reaction mechanism
extensive property
a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample
intensive property
a property that depends on the type of matter in a sample
colligative property
a property that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not upon their identity
specific rate constant (k)
a proportionally constant relating the concentrations of reactants to the rate of reaction
hypothesis
a proposed explanation for an observation (if, then statement)
physical property
a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's composition
measurement
a quantity that has both a number and a unit
conversion factor
a ratio of equivalent measurements
substitution reaction
a reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms, replaces another atom or group of atoms
elementary reaction
a reaction in which reactants are converted to products in a single step
reversible reaction
a reaction in which the conversion of reactants to products and the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously
nonspontaneous reaction
a reaction that does not favor the formation of products at the specified conditions
spontaneous reaction
a reaction that occurs naturally and favors the formation of products at the specified conditions
atomic orbital
a region of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron
chemical equation
a representation of a chemical reaction; the formulas of the reactants are connected by an arrow with the formulas of the products
International System of Units
a revised version of the metric system where there is an international agreement on what measurements mean
gene
a segment of DNA that carries instructions for making one peptide chain
precipitate
a solid that forms and settles out of a liquid mixture
homogenous mixtures
a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has the same proportions of its components throughout any given sample.
buffer
a solution in which the pH remains relatively constant when small amounts of acid or base are added
concentrated solution
a solution that contains a large amount of solute
dilute solution
a solution that contains a small amount of solute
unsaturated solution
a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure
acidic solution
a solution where H>+ is greater than OH>-
functional group
a specific arrangement of atoms in an organic compound that is capable of characteristic chemical reactions
condensed structural formula
a structural formula where some of the bonds and/or atoms are left out of the structural formula
resonance structure
a structure that occurs when it is possible to draw two or more valid electron dot structures that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion
what is a compound
a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together.
product
a substance produced in a chemical reaction
Lewis Acid
a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond
amphoteric
a substance that can act as both an acid and a base
Lewis Base
a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond
pure substance
a substance that cannot be separated; the components loose their individual properties
compound
a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion
inhibitor
a substance that interferes with the action of a catalyst
catalyst
a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but is not used up in the chemical reaction
disaccharides
a sugar such as sucrose that forms from two monosaccharides
Standard temperature and Pressure (STP)
a temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 101.3 kPa or 1 atmosphere (atm)
polyatomic ion
a tightly bound group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge and behaves as a unit
glass
a transparent fusion of inorganic substances that have cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing
salt bridge
a tube containing a strong electrolyte
dry cell
a voltaic cell in which the electrolyte is a paste
electrical potential
a voltaic cell measure of the cell's ability to produce an electric current
Hydronium Ion (H>3O<+)
a water molecule that gains a hydroge ion
Electron dot model
a way of representing the valence electron of an atom
dimensional analysis
a way to analyze and solve problems using the units, or dimensions
atomic mass
a weighted average of the atoms in a naturally occurring sample of the element
theory
a well tested explanation for a broad set of observations
strong acids
acids that are completely ionized in an aqueous solution
weak acids
acids that ionize only slightly in an aqueous solution
elements of group 2 are called ______________.
alkaline earth metals
straight-chain alkanes
alkanes that contain any number of carbon atoms, one after another, in a chain
The average atomic mass is the weighted average mass of
all the known isotopes of an element
branched-chain alkane
an alkane with one or more alkyl groups
periodic table
an arrangement of elements in which the elements are separated into groups based on a set of repeating properties
substituent
an atom or group of atoms that can take the place of a hydrogen on a parent hydrocarbon molecule
ion
an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge
Protons & neutrons are in
an atom's nucleus (nucleons)
dispersion interactions
an attraction caused by the motion of electrons; in nonpolar molecules
electrolytic cell
an electrochemical cell used to cause a chemical change through the application of electrical energy
vacuum
an empty space with no particles and no pressure
net ionic equation
an equation for a reaction in a solution that shows only those particles that are directly involved in the chemical change
balanced equation
an equation in which each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of each element and mass is conserved
half-reaction
an equation showing just the oxidation or just the reduction that takes place in a redox reaction
complete ionic equation
an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions
rate law
an expression for the rate of a reaction in terms of the concentration of reactants
calorimeter
an insulated device used to measure the absorption or release of heat in chemical or physical processes
spectator ion
an ion that appears on both sides of an equation and is not directly involved in the reaction
monoatomic ions
an ion that consists of a single atom with a positive or negative charge resulting from the loss or gain of one or more valence electrons respectively
anion
an ion with a negative charge
cation
an ion with a positive charge
base
an ionic compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water (OH-)
aldehyde
an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is always joined to at least one hydrogen
ketone
an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is joined to two other carbons
aromatic compound
an organic compound that contains a benzene ring or other ring in which the bonding is like that of benzene
alcohol
an organic compound with an OH group
activated complex (transition state)
an unstable arrangement of atoms that forms momentarily at the peak of the activation-energy barrier
tetrahedral angle
angles that are 109.5°
neutral solution
any aqueous solution in which H>+ and OH>- are equal
peptide
any combination of amino acids in which the amino group of one amino acid is united with the caroxyl group of another amino acid
amino acid
any compound that contains an amino group (-NH>2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
electrochemical process
any conversion between chemical energy and elecrical energy
electrochemical cell
any device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy
surfacant
any substance that interferes with the hydrogen bonding between water molecules and thereby reduces surface tension
Solutions
are the best examples of homogenous mixtures
meter means
area (m^2)
Where are electron configurations written?
at the bottom of an element's box on the periodic table. (2-8-3)
Elements are arranged on the modern periodic table in order of increasing...
atomic number
covalent bond
atoms held together by sharing electrons
isotopes
atoms that have the same amount of protons but a different amount of neutrons
collision theory
atoms, ions and molecules that can react to form products when they collide with one another, provided that the colliding particles have enough kinetic energy
hydrogen bonds
attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom; always involves hydrogen
strong bases
bases that dissociate completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions
weak bases
bases that react with water to form the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the base
Democritus's Atomic Philosophy
believed that atoms were tiny and indestructible
Where are mettaloids located on the periodic table?
border metals and nonmetals
Liquids
bromine and mercury
Chromatography
can also be used to separate mixtures of liquids and mixtures of gases; the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the components move at different rates. (Ink, paint, color)
mixtures
can be separated; components keep their properties
kelvin means
celsius (C)
sublimation
changing form a solid directly to a gas
condensation
changing from a gas to a liquid
deposition
changing from a gas to a solid
evaporation (boiling)
changing from a liquid to a gas
freezing
changing from a liquid to a solid
melting
changing from a solid to a liquid
reduction
complete or partial gain of electrons or loss of oxygen
oxidation
complete or partial loss of electrons or gain of oxygen
ionic compounds
compounds composed of cations and anions
Ternary compounds
compounds consisting of three or more atoms
cyclic hydrocarbons
compounds that contain a hydrocarbon ring
unsaturated compounds
compounds that contain double or triple carbon-carbon bonds
isomers
compounds that have the same molecular formula but different molecular structures
structural isomers
compounds that have the same molecular formula, but the atoms are joined together in a different order
metallic bonds
consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for positively charged metal ions
carboxyl group
consists of a carbonyl group attached to a hydroxyl group
film badge
consists of several layers of photographic film covered with black lightproof paper, all encased in a plastic or metal holder
conjugate acid-base pair
consists of two substances related by the loss or gain of a simple hydrogen ion
genes
contain information that controls changes that take place in cells
supersaturated solution
contains more solute than solvent than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature and pressure
saturated solution
contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a constant temperature and pressure
cathode ray
created by the electrical charging of both a cathode and an anode
Atomic radii does what?
decrease left to right across a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
esters
derivatives of carboxylic acids OH of the carboxyl group has been replaced by an OR from alcohol
vapor
describes a gaseous state of a substance that is generally a liquid or solid at room temperature
combined gas law
describes the relationship among the pressure, temperature, and volume of an enclosed gas
quantum mechanical model
determines the allowed energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find the electron in various locations around the nucleus
limiting reagent
determines the amount of product that can be formed by a reaction
electron dot structures
diagrams that show valence electrons as dots
J. J. Thompson
discovered the electron and developed the "plum-pudding" model of the atom
physical changes
do not form new substances; they merely change the appearance of the original material. (the melting of ice) H20 (s) > H20 (l)
dot diagram
dots represent 1 valence electron
period
each horizontal row of the periodic table
group
each vertical column of the periodic table
Voltaic cells
electrochemical cells used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy
The current, wave-mechanical model of the atom has
electrons in "clouds" (orbitals) around the nucleus
Hund's rule
electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in the way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible
aufbau principle
electrons occupy the orbitals of the lowest energy first
pure substances are broken up into two categories:
elements and compounds
transuranium elements
elements in the periodic table with atomic numbers above 92
Diatomic molecules
elements that form two atom molecules in their natural form at STP
free energy
energy that is available to do work
Heat (q)
energy that transfers from one object to another because of a temperature difference between them
- + - +
entire atom
molal boiling point elevation constant (K^b)
equal to the change in boiling point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute
molal freezing point depression constant (K^f)
equal to the change in freezing point for a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute
solubility product constant (K^sp)
equals the product of the concentrations of the ions each raised to a power equal to the coefficient of the ion in the disassociation equation.
waxes
esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
denatured alcohol
ethanol with an added substance to make it toxic
mixtures is divided up into two categories:
even distribution (homogenous) and uneven distribution (heterogenous)
surroundings
everything else in the universe
lipids
fats, oils and other water-insoluble compounds
Ionic bonds (2)
form when the electronegativity difference between two bonding atoms is greater than 1.7
Ionic bonds
formed when one atom transfers an electron to another atom when forming a bond with it.
condensation
gas to liquid
deposition
gas to solid
Ernest Rutherford's
gold foil experiment showed that an atom is mostly empty space with a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.
alkyl halides
halocarbons in which a halogen is attached to a carbon of an aliphatic chain
aryl halides
halocarbons in which a halogen is attached to a carbon of an arene ring
elements of group 17 are called ______________.
halogens
A compound differs from an element in that a compound...
has a homogeneous composition; it can bond chemically
ideal gas constant (R)
has the value of 8.31
liquids
have closely-spaced particles that easily slide past one another; they have no definite shape, but have a definite colume
Heterogenous mixtures
have discernable components and are not uniform throughout
gases
have widely-spaced particles that are in random motion (collide with container to create pressure).
Electrons can be excited to jump to
higher energy levels. They emit energy light when they fall from higher energy levels back down to lower (ground state) energy levels. Bright line spectra are produced.
What are periods on the periodic table?
horizontal rows
accuracy
how close a measurement comes to the actual value of what is measured
percision
how close a series of measurements are to one another
precision
how close the true values are to each other (range); unrelated to accuracy; 143.5 + or - 3.5
accuracy
how close to true value a given measurement is (average); unrelated to precision; 143.5
alkenes
hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-carbon double covalent bonds
alkynes
hydrocarbons that contain one or more carbon-carbon triple covalent bonds
Le Châtelier's principle
if a stress is applied to a system in dynamic equilibrium, the system changes in a way that relieves the stress
octet rule
in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas
addition reaction
in this reaction a substance is added at the double or triple bond of an alkene or alkyne
Atomic radii trend (3)
increase as you go down a group due to increased electron energy levels.
Ionization energy (IE) does what?
increases as you go up and to the right on the Periodic Table.
Electronegativity trend
increases up and to the right
equilibrium position
indicates whether the reactants or products are favored in a reversible reaction
geometric isomers
isomers that have atoms joined in the same order, but differ in the orientation of groups around a double bond
kernel
kernel of an atom includes everything in an atom except the atom's valence electrons
Neutrons and gamma rays
lack charge and mass (just energy). Going from excited state (more energy [m]) to ground state (less energy) by ejecting gamma rays.
amorphous solid
lacks an ordered internal structure
Where are metals located on the periodic table?
left of the "staircase" on the Periodic Table and at the bottom
half life
length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
phospholipids
lipids that contain phosphate groups
evaporation
liquid to gas
freezing
liquid to solid
immiscible
liquids that are insoluble in one another
activity series
lists metals in order of decreasing reactivity
triglyceride
long-chain carboxylic acids
Metric / SI units
m (meter), g (gram), L (liter), S (seconds), a (amps), K (kelvin)
The number of neutrons =
mass number (A) - atomic number (Z)
How to find the number of neutrons
mass number (top) - atomic number (bottom)
substance
matter that has a uniform and definite composition
transconfiguration
methyl groups are on opposite sides of the double bond
cisconfiguration
methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond
Air is classified chemically as a(n)
mixture; homogeneous mixture of many gases that are not chemically bonded
alloys
mixtures composed of two or more elements, where at least one is a metal
stereoisomers
molecules in which the atoms are joined in the same order, but the positions of the atoms in space are different
carbohydrates
monomers and polymers of aldehydes and ketones that have numerous hydroxyl groups attached; they are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
nucleotides
monomers that make up the DNA and RNA polymers
Anions
negatively charged (-) ions; form when a neutral atom gains electrons; larger than their parent atom
electrons
negatively charged subatomic particles
Neutrons have
no charge and a mass of 1 amu
elements of group 18 are called _______________.
noble gases
noble gases (group 18) are
nonreactive and stable due to the fact that their valence level of electrons is completely filled.
top number is
number of nucleons (mass number)
bottom number is
number of protons (atomic number)
Combustion reactions
occur when a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to make CO2 and H2O
Fusion reactions
occur when light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus and a lot of energy
Single replacement reactions
occur when one element replaces another element in a compound
dipole interactions
occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another
Decomposition reactions
occur when single reactant forms two or more products
Double replacement reactions
occur when two compounds react to form two new compounds
synthesis reactions
occur when two or more reactants combine to form a single product
fusion
occurs when nuclei combine to produce a nucleus of greater mass
Reactants
on the left side of the reaction arrow
products
on the right side of the reaction arrow
polar molecule
one end of the molecule is slightly negative and one end is slightly positive
atomic radius
one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when next to each other but not bound in a molecule
atomic mass unit
one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom
Hund's Rule
orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin
saturated compounds
organic compounds that contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms per carbon atom
optical isomers
pairs of molecules that differ only in the way that four different groups are arranged around a central carbon atom
crystal
particles are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice
The Bohr Model of the atom
placed electrons in "planet-like" orbits around the nucleus of an atom.
nucleic acids
polymers that are found primarily in the cell nuclei
Cations
positive charges (+) ions; form when a neutral atom loses electrons; smaller than their parent atom
protons are
positively charged (+) with a mass of 1 amu
bright line spectra
produced when electrons fall from higher energy levels to ground state
enzymes
proteins that act as biological catalysts
Which particle can be accelerated in a magnetic field?
proton
Two isotopes of the same element will have the same number of (choose one): neutrons and electrons, neutrons and nucleons, protons and nucleons, protons and electrons.
protons and electrons
matter is divided into two categories:
pure substances and mixtures
Elements are
pure substances composed of atoms with the same atomic number; they cannot be decomposed
What can radiation be used for?
radiation can be used to kill bacteria on foods to slow the spoilage process
ionizing radiation
radiation emitted by radioisotopes
electromagnetic radiation
radio waves, micro waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays
neutralization reactions
reactions in which an acid and base react in an aqueous solution to produce a salt and water
oxidization-reduction reaction
reactions that involve oxidization
structural formula
represents the covalent bonds by dashes and shows the arrangement of covalently bonded atoms
Applied Chemistry
research that is directed toward a practical goal or application
chemical changes
result in the formation of new substances (the electrolysis of water)
atmospheric pressure
results from the collisions of atoms and molecules in air with objects
gas pressure
results from the force exerted by a gas per unit of surface area of an object
Where are nonmetals located on the periodic table?
right side
Which sublevel is found in every principle energy level?
s
How many sublevels are there? List them.
s, p, d, f
How many orbitals does each of the sublevels have?
s=1, p=3, d=5, f=7
What is the maximum number of electrons in each sublevel?
s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14
Isotopes are atoms with
same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Filtration
separates mixtures of solids and liquids
distillation
separates mixtures with different boiling points
Celsius scale
sets the freezing point at 0 degrees Celsius and the boiling point of water at 100 degrees Celsius
Kelvin scale
sets the freezing point of water at 273.15 and the boiling point 373.15
f orbitals
seven orbitals
p orbital
shaped like propeller blades, the second energy level; 3 orbitals (8 electrons)
chemical formula
shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the smallest representative unit of a substance
convalent bonds can contain...
single, double, or triple bonds in order to satisfy to octet rule
Electrons are
small and are negatively charged (-) with a mass of almost 0 amu.
coefficients
small whole number integers that are placed in front of the formulas in an equation in order to balance it
monomers
smaller molecules that combine to form a polymer
unit cell
smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the geometric shape of the crystal
network solids
solids that melt at over 1000°C or higher, or decomposes without melting at all
homogenous mixtures are known as
solutions (salt water, air, etc.)
Fission reactions (splitting the atom)
split heavy unstable nuclei into smaller stable ones (release huge amounts of energy)
STP
standard temperature and pressure
Pauli Exclusion Principle
states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only if the electrons have opposite spins
Henry's Law
states that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
states that at constant volume and temperature, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the component gases
Avogadro's Hypothesis
states that equal volumes of gases of the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles
Boyle's Law
states that for a given mass of a gas at constant temperature, the volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure
Hess's Law of heat summation
states that if you can also add the heats of reaction to give the final heat of reaction
law of conservation of energy
states that in any chemical or physical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed
law of conservation of mass
states that in any physical change or chemical reaction, mass is conserved. Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
law of definite proportions
states that in samples of any chemical compound, the masses of elements are always in the same proportions
law of disorder
states that the natural tendency is for systems to move in the direction of maximum disorder or randomness
Gay-Lussac's Law
states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature if the volume remains constant
The Periodic Law
states that the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Graham's Law of Effusion
states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas's molar mass
Charles's Law
states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept constant
law of multiple proportions
states that whenever the same two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers
chemical property
the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change
percent error
the absolute value of the error divided by the accepted value, multiplied by 100%
hydrogenation reaction
the addition of hydrogen to a carbon-carbon double bond to produce an alkane
hydration reaction
the addition of water to an alkene
peptide bond
the amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen in the amino group of the next amino acid in the peptide chain
buffer capacity
the amount of acid or base that can be added to a buffer solution before a significant change in pH occurs
quantum
the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another
specific heat
the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance exactly 1°C
molar heat of vaporization (∆H^vap)
the amount of heat necessary to vaporize one mole of a given liquid
heat capacity
the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of an object exactly 1°C
molar heat of condensation (∆H^cond)
the amount of heat released when 1 mol of vapor condenses at the normal boiling point
actual yield
the amount of product that forms when the reaction is carried out in the laboratory
atomic number
the amount of protons in an element
solubility
the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution
Physical Chemistry
the area of study that deals with the mechanism, rate, and the energy transfer that occurs when matter undergoes change
Analytical Chemistry
the area of study that focuses on the composition of matter
molar mass
the atomic mass of an element expressed in grams
kilogram (kg)
the basic SI unit mass
empirical formula
the basic ratio gives the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms of the elements in a compound
meter (m)
the basic unit of length
normal boiling point
the boiling point of a liquid at a pressure of 101.3 kPa
stoichiometry
the calculation of quantities in chemical reactions
salt hydrolosis
the cations or anions of a dissociated salt remove hydrogen ions from or donate hydrogen ions to water
standard heat of formation (∆H^f^0)
the change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound form its elements with all substances in their standard states
molecular formula
the chemical formula of a molecular compound
reactant
the chemical present at the start of the reaction
hybridization
the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory
partial pressure
the contribution each gas in a mixture makes to the total pressure
transmutation
the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element
error
the difference between the accepted value and the experimental value
cell potential
the difference between the reduction potentials of the two half-cells
boiling-point elevation
the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent
freezing-point depression
the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent
solute
the dissolved particles
solvent
the dissolving medium
wavelength (λ)
the distance between the crests
electron configuration
the distribution of electrons in an atom
anode
the electrode at which oxidization occurs
cathode
the electrode at which reduction occurs
valence electrons
the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an element's atoms
kinetic energy
the energy an object has from its motion
bond dissociation energy
the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms
ionization energy
the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
chemical potential energy
the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance
molar heat of solution (∆H^soln)
the enthalpy change caused by dissolution of one mole of substance
heat of reaction
the enthalpy change for the chemical equation exactly as it is written
metabolism
the entire set of chemical reactions carried out by a specific organism
s orbital
the first energy level; has only one orbital (2 electrons)
energy levels
the fixed energies an electron can have
Molar heat of Fusion (∆H^fus)
the heat absorbed by one mole of a solid substance as it melts to a liquid at constant temperature
enthalpy (H)
the heat content of a system at constant pressure
molar heat of solidification (∆H^solid)
the heat lost when one mole of a liquid solidifies at a constant temperature
combustion
the heat of reaction for the complete burning of one mole of a substance
saponification
the hydrolysis of oils or fats by boiling with an aqueous solution of an alkali-metal hydroxide
surface tension
the inward force, or pull, that tends to minimize the surface area of a liquid
dehydrogenation reaction
the loss of hydrogen in a reaction
common ion effect
the lowering of the solubility of an ionic compound as a result of the addition of a common ion
ground state
the lowest possible energy of an electron
formula unit
the lowest whole number ratio of ions in an ionic compound
"Law of Conservation of Mass (and Energy)"
the masses (and energy and charge) of the reactants in a chemical equation is always equal to the masses (and energy and charge) of the products
Gibbs free-energy change (∆G)
the maximum amount of energy that can be coupled to another process to do useful work
theoretical yield
the maximum amount of product that could be formed from given amount of reactants1
Technology
the means by which a society provides itself for innovative ways to solve problems
standard cell potential (E>cel<0)
the measured cell potential when the ion concentrations in the half-cells are 1M, any gasses are at 101 kPa and the temperature is 25°C
activation energy
the minimum energy that colliding particles must have in order to react
pH
the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
The Rutherford Atomic Model
the nucleus is tiny compared to the entirety of an atom
In a neutral atom, the number of protons =
the number of electrons, that way the positive and negative charges cancel out.
coordination number
the number of ions of opposite charge that surround an ion in a crystal
molality
the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent
Molarity (M)
the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution
what determines an element?
the number of protons in the nucleus
The atomic number is equal to
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Avagadro's Number
the number of representative particles in a mole
frequency (v)
the number of wave cycles a wave passes in a certain unit of time
Molar Mass
the numeric equivalent of the atomic mass in grams
system
the part of the universe on which you focus your attention
conjugate acid
the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion
conjugate base
the particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen ion
radiation
the penetrating rays and particles emitted by a radioactive source
percent composition
the percent by mass of each element in the compound
active site
the place on which the enzyme binds
end point
the point at which the indicator changes color
polysaccharides
the polymers produced by the linkage of many monosaccharide monomers
calorimetry
the precise measurement of the heat flow into or out of a system of chemical and physical processes
standard atmosphere (atm)
the pressure required to support 760 mm of mercury in a barometer at 25 degrees celcius
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
the principle that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time
radioactivity
the process by which materials give off rays
solvation
the process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded by solvent molecules
electrolysis
the process in which electrical energy is used to bring about a chemical change
filtration
the process that separates a solid from a liquid in a heterogeneous mixture
distillation
the process where a liquid is boiled to produce vapor that is then condensed into a liquid
fermentation
the production of ethanol from sugars by the action of yeast or bacteria
calorie (cal)
the quantity of heat that raises the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1 degree Celsius
chemical equilibrium
the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal
equilibrium constant (K^eq)
the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations at equilibrium, which each concentration raised to a power equal to the number of moles of that substance in the balanced equation
percent yield
the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent
base dissociation constant (K>b)
the ratio of the concentration of the conjugate acid times the concentration of the hydroxide ion to the concentration of the conjugate base
acid dissociation constant (K>a)
the ratio of the concentration of the dissociated form of an acid to the concentration of the dissociated form
Density
the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume D=m/v
mole fraction
the ratio of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute
excess reagent
the reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction
self-ionization
the reaction in which water molecules produce ions
first-order reaction
the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of only one reactant
band of stability
the region containing stable nuclei
phase diagram
the relationships among the different states of a substance as shown on a graph
Lewis electron dot diagram
the representation of an atom, ion or molecule, in which the element symbols stand for the nucleus and all inner level electrons while dots stand for outer level electrons
accepted value
the right answer
Tyndall Effect
the scattering of visible light by colloidal particles
Alexander Flemming
the scientist that discovered penicillin from mold growing on bacteria
George De Mestral
the scientist who created hook and lope tape by analyzing burrs under a microscope and looking at the structure
reaction mechanism
the series of elementary reactions or steps that take place during the course of a complex reaction
pi bond
the side-by-side overlap of atomic p orbitals
monosaccharides
the simplest carbohydrate molecules called simple sugars
element
the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties
hydrocarbons
the simplest organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon
atom
the smallest particle of an element that retains its identity in a chemical reaction
standard solution
the solution of the known concentration
representative particles
the species present in a substance: usually atoms, molecules or formula units
atomic emission spectrum
the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state
fission
the splitting of a nucleus into smaller fragments
Organic Chemistry
the study of all chemicals containing carbon
Inorganic Chemistry
the study of chemicals that, in general, do not contain carbon
thermochemistry
the study of energy changes that occur during chemical reactions and changes in state
Biochemistry
the study of processes that take place in organisims
Chemistry
the study of the composition of matter and the changes that matter undergoes
oxidizing agent
the substance that accepts electrons
reducing agent
the substance that looses electrons
anabolism
the synthesis reactions of metabolism
melting point (mp)
the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid
boiling point (bp)
the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is just equal to the external pressure on the liquid
reduction potential
the tendency of a given half-reaction to occur as reduction
diffusion
the tendency of molecules to move toward areas of lower concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout
half-life (t>1/2)
the time required for one half of the nuclei of a radioisotope sample to decay to products
mass number
the total of protons and neutrons in an atom
Van Der Waals Forces
the two weakest attractions between molecules; dipole and dispersion
electron configuration
the ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms
absolute zero
the zero point of Kelvin or -273.15 degrees Celsius
macroscopic
things big enough to be seen by the human eye
microscopic
things that can only be seen under magnification
polyatomic ions
tightly bound groups of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge
nucleus
tiny central core of an atom composed of protons and neutrons
What is Uranium-238 (U-238) used for?
to determine the age of rocks
Pauli exclusion principle
to occupy the same orbital electrons must have opposite spins
What is cobalt-60 9 (Co-60) used for?
to treat cancer tumors
What Iodine-131 (I-131) used for?
to treat thyroid disorders
nuclear equations
total of the atomic number and the total of the mass number must be equal on both sides
sigma bond
two atomic orbitals that combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting two atomic nuclei
single covalent bond
two atoms held together by sharing a pair of electrons
Covalent bonds form when...
two atoms share a pair of electrons.
miscible
two liquids that dissolve in each other at all proportions
allotropes
two or more different forms of the same element in the same physical state
molecules are
two or more different or same atoms chemically bonded together
phase
used to describe any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties
What is Carbon-14 (c-14) used for?
used to determine the age of organic material up to 23,000 years old
liter (l)
used to measure liquids; the volume of a cube that is 10 centimeters along each edge
Dot models
used to represent the formation of ions or covalent molecules
roman numerals
used to show the positive oxidation number of the cation if it has more than one positive oxidation number
standard hydrogen potential
used with other electrodes so the reduction potentials of the other cells can be measured
scintillation counter
uses a phosphor-coated surface to detect radiation
What are groups on the periodic table?
vertical columns
fuel cells
voltaic cells in which a fuel substance undergoes oxidation and from which electrical energy is continuously obtained
Dalton's model of the atom
was a solid sphere of matter that was uniform throughout
aqueous solution
water that contains dissolved substances
effusion
when a gas escapes through a tiny hole in a container
Artificial (Induced) Transmutation
when a nucleus is bombarded with a nucleon, an alpha particle or another small nucleus (high kinetic energy), resulting in a nuclide with a different proton number (a different element).
equivalence point
when an acid and a base are mixed together the number of moles of hydrogen ions equals the number of hydroxide ions
periodic law
when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties
chemical reaction
when one or more substances change into one or more new substances
physical change
when some properties of a material change, but the composition of the material does not change
nonpolar covalent bond
when the bonding electrons are shared equally
oxidation-number change method
when you balance a redox equation by comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers
observation
when you use your senses to obtain information
half-reaction method
when you write and balance the oxidization and reduction half-reactions separately before combining them into a balanced redox equation
Coefficients
written in front of the formulas of reactants and products in chemical equations. They give us the ratios of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation
cracking
a controlled process by which hydrocarbons are broken down or rearranged into smaller, more useful molecules
polar covalent bond
a covalent bond between atoms in which the electrons are shared unequally
coordinate covalent bond
a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons
barometer
a device that is used to measure atmospheric pressure
nuclide
a distinct kind of atom or nucleus characterized by a specific number of protons and neutrons.
weight
a force that measures the pull on a given mass by gravity
polymer
a large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of reapeating smaller molecules
photosynthesis
a light-capturing system that converts light energy into chemical energy
scientific method
a logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem
Nucleon
a proton or neutron
The mass number is equal to
an atom's number of protons and neutrons added together
beta particle
an electron resulting from the breaking apart of a neutron in an atom
common ion
an ion that is found in both salts in a solution
Matter
anything that has mass and occupies space
halide ions
ions that are produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons
number of valence electrons
is equal to the last digit of an element's group number
Valance electrons
outermost electrons
+ - + - +
particles spread throughout
protons
positively charged subatomic particles
melting
solid to liquid
aliphatic hydrocarbons
straight-chain and branched-chain alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
neutron
subatomic particles with no charge but a mass nearly equal to that of a proton
Binary compounds
substances made up of only two kinds kind of atoms.
hydroxyl group
the OH functional group for alcohols
joule (j)
the SI unit for energy
pascal (Pa)
the SI unit for pressure
Elements of Group 1 are called ____________.
alkali metals
fatty acids
continuous-chain carboxylic acids
sublimation
solid to gas
gram means
volume (m^3)
Substitutional alloy
Alloy formed when atoms of similar size replace other atoms in the crystal lattice.
Anions - Nonmetals usually gain electrons
An atom that has gained electrons and now has a negative charge. Which type of elements generally make anions?
Cation - Metals usually give away electrons.
An atom that has lost one or more electrons and now has a positive charge. Which type of elements generally make cations?
Aufbau Principle
An electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it
radioisotopes
An isotope that has an unstable nucleus and undergoes radioactive decay
ideal gas law
P X V = n X R X T
Deposition
Phase change from G -> S
Chemical bond
The force that holds two atoms together; may form by the attraction of cations for anions or by sharing electrons.
Frequency - Hertz = waves/second (pp 137, 140)
The number of waves that pass a given point per second. What are the units? What is the formula?
Covalent bond
The sharing of electrons (in pairs) in overlapping orbitals between 2 nonmetal atoms.
Formula unit
The simplest ratio of cations and anions in an ionic compound.
Atom
The smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element.
Triple bond are stronger than double bonds and double bonds are stronger than single bonds.
Which is the strongest covalent bond?
The blanks in Mendeleev's periodic table represented what?
Yet to be discovered elements.
Where are the metalloids found on the periodic table?
You should be able to list all 8. B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At
triple covalent bond
a bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons
Metallic bonds
a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them
double covalent bond
a bond that involves two shared pairs of electrons
asymmetric carbon
a carbon with four different atoms or groups attached
chemical change
a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original matter
thermochemical equation
a chemical equation that includes the enthalpy change
electrolyte
a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or in the molten state
acid
a compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen Ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
hydrate
a compound that contains water of hydration
nonelectrolyte
a compound that does not conduct an electric current in either an aqueous solution or a molten state
carbonxyllic acid
a compound with a carboxyl group
neutron activation analysis
a procedure used to detect trace amounts of elements in samples
endothermic process
a process that absorbs heat from the surroundings
neutron absorption
a process that decreases the number of slow moving neutrons
gases (also)
are easily compressed and have no definite shape of volume
Visible light
divides into a spectrum of colors
photons
light quanta
molecular orbitals
orbitals that apply to the entire molecule
radioisotopes
the nuclei of unstable isotopes
experimental value
the recorded value that is measured in a lab
Mass
A measurement that reflects the amount of matter in something. Measured on a balance. Does not change!
basic solution (alkali solution)
a solution where H>+ is less than OH>-
Pure Chemistry
the pursuit of chemical knowledge for it's own sake
dependent variable (responding variable)
the variable that is observed or measured during an experiment
independent variable (manipulated variable)
the variable that you change during an experiment
amplitude
the wave's height from zero to crest
titration
the process of adding a known amount of solution of known concentration to determine the concentration of another solution
catabolism
the process of breaking down unneeded cellular components and the nutrients in food into simpler compounds by chemical reactions
natural transmutation
the process of one element changing into another (alpha, beta, gamma)
degrees celsius =
K - 273
What experiments did Bohr do?
Spectroscopy
Diagonal rule
This is upside down from how we did it in class.
d orbitals
five orbitals
energy
the capacity to do work or to produce heat
JJ Thompson
-discovered electrons -cathode ray tube -plum pudding model
substrates
the molecules on which an enzyme acts
Electrons are found in
"clouds" (orbitals) around an atom's nucleus/
gram (g)
1/1000th of a kilogram
How do you name binary ionic compounds?
write the name of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the name of the negative ion (anion) with the name ending in "-ide."