Child Development

WARMTH AND RESPONSIVENESS POWERFUL AND COMPETENT models-C CONSISTENCY BETWEEN ASSERTIONS AND BEHAVIOR-

Factors That Increase Modeling

Academic, Social, Physical/Athletic Competence, and Physical Appearance

General Self Esteem breaks down to

Sociodramatic play Rough & tumble play

Two important categories of play

Contexts

Unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change.

Factors affecting the childs theory of mind

language, cognitive abilities, make- believe play, and social experiences all contribute.

Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt

1-3 years Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child.

*Discalculia

- difficulty processing numbers .

*Dyslexia

- having trouble reading

Ivan Pavlov

1849-1936 Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs

Latency Stage

6-11 years Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social values from adults and same- sex peers outside the family.

Sociomoral Reflection Measure- Short Form ( SRM- SF),

A short- answer questionnaire that assesses moral understanding by asking individuals to rate the importance of moral values posed by 11 brief questions and to write a brief explanation of their ratings. More efficient than Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Interview.

enduring self

A view of the self as persisting over time.

...

A wealth of research confirms that an effective way to reduce prejudice— in children and adults alike— is through intergroup contact, in which ethnically different indi-viduals have equal status, work toward common goals, and become personally acquainted, and in which authority figures ( such as parents and teachers) expect them to engage in such interaction.

A)Mastery- Oriented B) Learned- Helpless

Achievement- Related Attributions A)Success due to high ability Failure due to low effort or difficult task B)Success due to luck Failure due to low ability View of Ability A)Incremental: Can be improved through effort B)Entity: Fixed— cannot be improved through effort Expectancy of Success A)High B)Low Task Goals A)Learning B)Performance Strategies and Behaviour A) Effective metacognitive and self- regulatory skills Persistence at challenging tasks B)Lack of metacognitive and self- regulatory skills Avoidance of challenging tasks

Proactive Agression

Aggression in which children act to fulfill a need or desire— obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward— and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. Also called instrumental aggression.

Reactive Agression

An angry, defensive response to a provocation or a blocked goal; intended to hurt another person. Also called hostile aggression.

Attribution Retaining

An intervention that uses adult feedback to encourage learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure through effort....which encourages students to believe they can over-come failure through effort, improves the self- evaluations and task perfor-mance of learned- helpless children. Effective approaches include teaching children to focus less on grades and more on mastering tasks for their own sake and providing instruction in effective strategies and self- regulation.

problem solving - they are better at solving problems on their own exploration and curiosity attention span and persistence - they seem to be better at focusing their behavior for longer play - they have greater complexity to their play compliance - they are more likely to comply with parental and others' demands and requests peer interactions - they are more likely to have good interactions with their peers, to be well-liked, and so on teacher interaction - they are more mature in their teacher-child interactions behavior problems - they are less likely to have behavior problems resilience - they are better at coping with adversity

Attachment security has been shown to have an effect on:

inner self

Awareness of the self ' s private thoughts and imaginings.

Catigorical self

Classification of the self according to prominent ways in which people differ, such as age, sex, physical characteristics, and goodness and badness. Develops between 18 and 30 months.

Attributions

Common, everyday explanations for the causes of behaviour.

Social Comparisons

Evaluations of one's own abilities, behaviour, and appearance in relation to those of others.

Social Problem Solving

Generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self....noticing and interpreting social cues, clarifying social goals, generating and evaluating strategies, and enact-ing responses— improve over early and middle childhood and predict socially competent behaviour. Training in social problem solving leads to gains in social information processing and adjustment.

Generalized Other

George Herbert Mead ( 1934)He proposed that a psychological self emerges when children adopt a view of the self that resembles others' attitudes toward the child. Mead's ideas indicate that perspective- taking skills— in particular, an improved ability to infer what other people are thinking— are crucial for developing a self- concept based on personality traits. During middle childhood and adolescence, young people become better at " reading" messages they receive from others. As school- age children internalize others' expectations, they form an ideal self that they use to evaluate their real self. As we will see shortly, a large discrepancy between the two can greatly undermine self- esteem, leading to sadness, hopelessness, and depression.

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

It seeks to understand the adaptive value of species- wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age

PRECONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL POSTCONVENTIONAL (OR PRINCIPLED)

Kohlberg's Stages of morality LEVEL 1: ________MORALITY At this level, rules are truly external to the self rather than internalized. The child conforms to rules imposed by authority figures to avoid punishment or obtain personal rewards. Thus, morality is self-serving Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation-The goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences. The child obeys authorities to avoid punishment. The greater the harm done, the more "bad" the act is. Stage 2: Naïve hedonism-One conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or satisfy personal objectives. Thus, other-oriented behaviors are motivated by the hope of benefiting in return. "You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours." LEVEL 2: _______ MORALITY-The person at this level strives to obey rules and social norms in order to win others' approval or to maintain social order. Social praise and the avoidance of blame have now replaced tangible rewards and punishments as motivators of ethical conduct. Stage 3: "Good boy" or "good girl" orientation-Moral behavior is that which pleases or is approved of by others. The primary goal is to be thought of as a "good" person. Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining morality-The will of society as reflected in law is what's important. What is right is what conforms to the rules of legal authority. The reason for conforming is not a fear of punishment but a belief that rules and laws maintain a social order that is worth preserving. Laws always transcend special interests. LEVEL 3:__________MORALITY-A person in this level defines right and wrong in terms of broad principles of justice, and these might even conflict with written laws or with the dictates of authority figures. In other words, something that is morally right may not be legally proper. Stage 5: The social-contract orientation-At Stage 5, the individual views laws as instruments for expressing the will of the majority of people. Laws that accomplish these ends and are impartially applied are viewed as social contracts that one has an obligation to follow, but laws that are imposed and that compromise human rights or dignity are considered unjust and worthy of challenge. Stage 6: Morality of individual principles or conscience-At this "highest" moral stage, the individual defines right and wrong on the basis of the self-chosen ethical principles of his or her own conscience. These principles are not concrete rules such as the Ten Commandments, but are abstract moral guidelines or principles of universal justice and respect for the rights of all human beings. These transcend any law or social contract that may conflict with them.

CULTURE certainly plays a role in how children see themselves. For example, children in some cultures almost never evaluate themselves as better than others in some way because that kind of behavior is greatly frowned upon. In some cultures, it is just as frowned upon for a child to stand out with high achievement as to dramatically fail. Saying things like "I can run the fastest" or "I am the smartest in my class" are reacted to quite negatively by others. Instead, behavior that fosters and helps the group as a whole is valued. PARENTS play a role. Children who are securely attached to their parents have higher self-esteem. Parents who are warm and involved with their children, who give their children firm guidelines about how to behave but also allow their children some say in what those guidelines are, have children who are confident in their abilities. In contrast, children of parents who are negative toward them, who are uninvolved or ignore them, or who don't give their children firm behavioral guidelines so that the children do not develop good self-control, do not have high self-esteem. PEERS and other children play a role by how they evaluate the child. If they approve of the child, play with her and so on, this fosters high self-esteem. In contrast, children who are teased or belittled by their peers, who are rejected by their peer group, have lower self-esteem. TEACHERS also play a role. The way they treat the child is going to influence self-esteem. Do they treat the child with respect? Do they value the child's achievements? Or do they constantly put the child down, telling them they are poor students, slow to understand, and so on? As we shall see, there can be subtle and completely unintentional cues that influence children's self-esteem. THE CHILD'S own comparisons of himself with others is also important. How does the child see himself in comparison with other children? Is he generally better at reading than his classmates? Better at playing hockey and other sports? Is he about as good at figuring things out as most other kids?

Lots of factors influence children's self-esteem. list them..

Normative Approach

Measures of behaviour are taken on large numbers of individuals and age- related averages are computed to represent typical development.

Early Childhood (2-5) Middle Childhood (6-11) Adolescence (12-17)

Physical appearance-My hair is blond. Typical actions -I play Star Wars a lot. Possessions-I have a dog named Darth. Competence-I can run fast. Physical appearance-I have brown hair and brown eyes. Activities-I play basketball with my friends. Preferences (likes and dislikes) -I LOVE playing hockey. Social comparison-I'm almost the smartest boy in the class. Political ideology-I am a liberal. Personality traits-I am ambitious. Self-awareness-I don't know who I am. Future orientation-I want to be a teacher some day.

PREMORAL HETERONOMOUS AUTONOMOUS

Piaget proposed that children pass through different stages in their moral thinking. Piaget's Stages THE ___________ PERIOD-Children who are under five years of age show little concern or awareness of rules or moral behavior. _____________MORALITY (for children approximately 5-10 years of age)-Morality is under the authority of others. Children in this stage see the rules of behavior as passed down by authority figures who have the power to punish. They focus on objective consequences of behavior rather than intention, and thus the child who broke more dishes, regardless of intent, is the naughtier. ____________ MORALITY (for children 10 years and older)-With increasing cognitive maturity and a gradual release from adult control, children come to realize that social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be challenged and even changed with the consent of the people to whom they apply. They also feel that rules can be violated in the service of human needs. For example, they now believe that it is acceptable for a person to speed in a medical emergency because there are extenuating circumstances in this case. Judgments of right and wrong now depend more on the person's intent rather than the objective consequences of their actions.

Developmental

Psychopathology - applies the insights gained from studying normal development to children who suffer from psychological disorders.

Infant self-recognition in a mirror. Infant use of labels for the self.

Self-recognition in Infancy How do we know when children begin to develop a concept of self? This is hard to answer, but two ways are commonly used.

Level 0: Undifferentiated perspective taking 3- 6 Level 1: Social- informational perspective taking 4- 9 Level 2: Self- reflective perspective taking 7- 12 Level 3: Third- party perspective taking 10- 15 Level 4: Societal perspective taking 14- adult

Selman's Stages of Perspective Taking _________Children recognize that self and other can have different thoughts and feelings, but they frequently confuse the two. __________Children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information.Children can " step into another person's shoes" and view their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour from the other person's perspective. They also recognize that others can do the same. ___________Children can step outside a two- person situation and imagine how the self and other are viewed from the point of view of a third, impartial party. ____________ Individuals understand that third- party perspective taking can be influenced by one or more systems of larger societal values.

Identity achievement Identity moratorium Identity foreclosure Identity diffusion

The Four Identity Statuses _____________ Identity- achieved individuals have already explored alternatives and are committed to a clearly formulated set of self- chosen values and goals. They feel a sense of psychological well- being, of sameness through time, and of knowing where they are going. _____________Moratorium means " delay or holding pattern." These individuals have not yet made definite commitments. They are in the process of exploring— gathering information and trying out activities in an effort to find values and goals to guide their lives. _______________ Identity- foreclosed individuals have committed them-selves to values and goals without exploring alternatives. They accept a ready- made identity chosen for them by authority figures— usually parents but sometimes teachers, religious leaders, or romantic partners. ____________ Identity- diffused individuals lack clear direction. They are neither committed to values and goals nor actively trying to reach them. They may never have explored alternatives or may have found the task too threatening and overwhelming.

Moral Self-Regulation

The ability to monitor one's own conduct, constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards.

Self-Esteem

The aspect of self- concept that involves judgments about one's own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments.

Perspective Talking

The capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling.....improves greatly from childhood to adolescence, as Selman's five- stage sequence indicates. Between 6 and 8 years, children understand that prior knowledge affects a person's ability to understand new information and that people's preexisting beliefs can affect their view-points. During adolescence, recursive thought is mastered. ¦ The ability to understand others' viewpoints contributes to many social skills. Angry, aggressive young people have trouble imagining the thoughts and feelings of others. Interventions that teach perspective- taking skills help reduce antisocial behaviour and increase prosocial responding.

Remembered self

The child's life- story narrative, or autobiographical memory, constructed from conversations with adults about the past.

Moral Self-Relevance

The degree to which morality is central to an individual's self-concept.

belief-disire theory of mind ages 3-4

The more sophisticated theory of mind that emerges , in which children understand that both beliefs and desires determine behaviour.

internalization:

The process of adopting the attributes or standards of other people and taking these standards as one's own.

Self Conceept

The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is.

Achievement motivation

The tendency to persist at challenging tasks.

disire theory of mind ages 2-3

The theory of mind`:who assume that people always act in ways consistent with their desires but do not understand the influence on behaviour of interpretive mental states, such as beliefs.

Person Perception

The way individuals size up the attributes of people with whom they are familiar.

emotional (or affective) Cognitive behavioral

There are three distinct components to morality, which of course interact with each other. An _______component that consists of the feelings that surround right or wrong actions and that motivate moral thoughts and actions. These include guilt, empathy, and concern for the feelings of others.: psychoanalytic theory A__________component that centers on the way we conceptualize right and wrong or reason about moral issues.ognitive developmental theories A ________ component that reflects how we actually behave when we experience the temptation to violate moral rules such as by lying, cheating, stealing, using drugs, and so on.social learning theory

if it is DELAYED, if it is INCONSISTENT, if it is DELIVERED BY A COLD, ALOOF, OR PUNITIVE PARENT, and if it is PERCEIVED AS ARBITRARY rather than accompanied by cognitive rationales.

What Factors DECREASE the Effectiveness of Punishment?

IMMEDIATE ADMINISTRATION CONSISTENT PUNISHMENT WARMTH COGNITIVE RATIONALES (inductive reasoning)

What Factors INCREASE the Effectiveness of Punishment

( 1) opportunity to establish a close relationship, ( 2) quality of caregiving, ( 3) the baby's characteristics, and ( 4) family context, including parents' internal working models.

What factors might influence attachment security? Researchers have looked closely at four important influences:

...

When dividing money earned from selling children's art among three child artists— two white and one black— the fourth graders gave more money to a productive black artist ( who countered a stereotype) than to a productive white artist and less money to a needy black artist ( who conformed to a stereo-type) than to a needy white artist. In both instances, the fourth graders seemed to engage in subtle, unin-tentional prejudice.

...

White Canadian 5- year- olds' expres-sions of in- group favouritism and out- group prejudice. When asked to sort positive and negative adjectives into boxes labelled as belonging to a white child and a black child, white Canadian 5- year- olds assigned a greater number of positive adjec-tives ( such as clean, nice, smart) to the white child than to the black child— evidence for in- group favouritism. In addition to viewing the black child less positively, the white Canadian 5- year- olds also assigned a greater number of negative adjectives ( such as dirty, naughty, cruel ) to the black child— evidence for out- group prejudice.

Rough and tumble

_____ play is that play that if you're a parent you don't want happening in the living room. It's when the kids are playing over and under the couch and you're worried about the lamp falling down. It's the kind of thing that you say, please go play outdoors. And the kids will chase each other all around. And it's often the kind of play that daddies get involved in doing with their kids. The function of __________seems to have to do with self-regulation. Because when you're going over and under the sofa and you're kicking your feet and you've got a lamp right there, it's fairly important that you learn to play and also to regulate your body movements; to not get too revved up and out of control.

Robert Selman

devised a five- stage sequence of perspective- taking skill, based on children's and adolescents' responses to social dilemmas in which characters have dif-fering information and opinions about an event.

Yarrow

______ found a relationship between a mother's satisfaction and employment, and the type of relationship that existed between mother and child. Mothers who were satisfied with what they were doing (whether homemakers or working outside the home) were more likely to have good relationships with their children. So, it didn't matter whether the mothers were at home full-time or not; if the mother was happy with what she was doing, she was more likely to interact in positive ways with her children. Likewise, mothers who were externally employed but unhappy about working outside the home also had similar good relationships with their children. The only group that had a significantly worse relationship with their children was the dissatisfied homemakers. Why did mothers who were unhappy at their jobs and mothers who were unhappy with staying home with their children have such different relationships with their children? Women who are unhappy with being in the work force typically want to spend their time at home with their children. So when they are with them, they are loving, supportive, and stimulating. But if a mother is a homemaker not because she wants to be there but because she is told that she must be there, that that is what a mother does, that it is her duty, who can she take her frustrations out on? The children, of course. No one else is there. So, if you don't want to stay home with the children but feel you should out of a sense of duty or because it is what mothers are "supposed" to do, DON'T. It is far better for your relationship with your children as well as for yourself if you don't. No one gains by maternal dissatisfaction and unhappiness, least of all the children for whom the sacrifice is being made.

Permissive

______ parenting on the other hand is very warm and very nurturing but sets very little limits and provides very little guidance for behavior. It's a kind of laissez-faire approach to parenting.

Authoritarian

______ parenting tends to be very strict but more aloof and sometimes even hostile. It's a kind of do it because I said so approach to parenting.

Sociodramatic

________ play is when a group of children get together and act some sort of a scene together Children who engage in more_________ play come earlier to a theory of mind than children who engage in less _________ play. We also know that children who engage in more ___________ play have advanced language skills, relative to other children, and they also have advanced social skills relative to other children.

PROSOCIAL

__________ BEHAVIOR REFERS TO ACTIONS THAT ARE INTENDED TO AID OR BENEFIT ANOTHER PERSON OR GROUP OF PEOPLE WITHOUT THE ACTOR'S ANTICIPATION OF EXTERNAL REWARD. These actions often entail some cost or self sacrifice. They include generosity, altruism, sympathy, helping, sharing, donating to charity, etc. What are the determinants of ________ behavior? Biological Factors Culture Socialization Experiences Cognition Situational Determinants

Authoritative

___________ parenting combines limit setting and discipline with warmth and support and it's that combination that makes authoritative parenting so valuable.

Susan Harter

developed a self-perception profile for children that reflected these various domains. Here is a sample of the sorts of questions she asks children in elementary and junior high school.

Erikson

first recognized formation of an identity— a solid self- definition based on self- chosen values and goals— as the major personality achievement of adolescence. In complex societies, identity achievement ( exploration fol-lowed by commitment) and identity moratorium ( exploration without hav-ing reached commitment) are psychologically healthy identity statuses. Long- term identity foreclosure ( commitment without exploration) and identity diffusion ( lack of both exploration and commitment) are related to adjustment difficulties.

induction,

in which an adult helps the child notice others' feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehaviour on others, noting especially their dis-tress and making clear that the child caused it.

Parents of avoidantly attached

infants are hostile and rejecting, often angry and resentful at how the baby interferes with their other interests and activities and often react to the baby in an angry, irritable way. Or, they can be very insensitive, providing inappropriately overstimulating care when the baby can't handle or doesn't want it. Or, they can simply be fundamentally unavailable or uninterested in their child. They don't pick them up and hold them, and they avoid close body contact.

Parents of resistantly attached

infants are most characterized by inconsistency. Sometimes they respond to their children and sometimes they ignore them, So, they may be unresponsive when the infant is trying to get their attention but then when the infant begins to explore they may become intrusive. In short, the infant can't predict how the caretaker will respond, so he or she becomes both clingy and simultaneously hostile and can show a rather frenzied, exaggerated proximity seeking behavior.

Parents of disorganized / disoriented attached

infants show the most deficient forms of parenting. Many of these parents are abusive or neglecting. They can also behave in ways that are frightening to the child. As well, this pattern of infant and child attachment is also associated with maternal depression., i.e., the child (although physically taken care of) is almost totally ignored.

Parents of disorganized / disoriented attached children

often had memories of grim parent-child interactions. Their own childhoods were often characterized by abuse or neglect themselves. No wonder they hadn't learned how to interact in positive, loving ways with their own children!

William James,

over a century ago, was the first one to talk about two distinct aspects of the self. One is the "I," or what he called the existential self. This is the part that initiates action, that organizes what you do, that interprets the world. This is the active doer, the part that controls your actions and thoughts. The other is the "me," or what he termed the reflective observer. This is the one that stands back and treats the self as an object of knowledge and evaluation. This is the one that looks at the self and decides what sort of person he or she is, what sort of attributes one has, and interprets one's self-worth.

Parents of securely attached children

remembered loving and supportive parents and a warm family climate. They placed high value on attachment relationships and saw them as having long term effects on personality.

Thomas and Chess's nine dimensions,

served as the first influential model of temperament,

15 to 20 months

somewhere around______________ that they seem to recognize that the image they see is themselves they also begin to talk about themselves as separate entities from other people.

I have stressed the fact that there are three separate components to moral development:

the emotional or affective component; the cognitive component that stresses children's reasoning; and the behavioral component, or what the child actually does in various situations.

macrosystem

the values, laws, customs, and resources of the culture that affect activities and interactions at all inner layers.

Parents of avoidantly attached children

typically had distant and uncaring, hostile parents themselves. Although they may have described their parents in idealized ways on the surface, when they provided specific details of how their parents had interacted with them, these showed their own parents to be very rejecting. These parents also claimed to remember very little about their childhood. They also saw their relationship with their own parents as having little effect on them, and thus they didn't see that the quality of their own relationship with their children would have any effect. In fact, they thought that relationships in general were unimportant.

Parents of resistantly attached children

were still preoccupied with their own dependence on their own parents; they were so involved psychologically with their own unmet needs in relation to their parents that their relationship with their own children was less important.

Distress Interest Disgust

At birth, it is clear that infants display at least three basic emotions:

Self-Conscious Emotions

Emotions— such as shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride— that involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self.

sympathy

Feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight.

Problem Centered Coping

A general strategy for managing emotion in which the individual appraises the situation as changeable, identifies the difficulty, and decides what to do about it.

Emotion Centered Coping

A general strategy for managing emotion that is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done to change an outcome.

Functionalist Approach to Emotion

A perspective emphasizing that the broad function of emotions is to energize behaviour aimed at attaining personal goals.

Emotional Display Rules

A society's rules specifying when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotions.

Information Processing

Human mind as a symbol manipulating system through which info flows. From the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, info is coded, transformed and organized.

Identity Vs. Identity Confusion

Adolescence The adolescent tries to answer the questions, Who am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

Genital Stage

Adolescence. With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood.

The Difficult Child

( 10 percent of the sample) has irregular daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely.

The Slow To Warm Up Child

( 15 percent of the sample) is inactive; shows mild, low- key reactions to environmental stimuli; is negative in mood; and adjusts slowly to new experiences.

Formation of a reciprocal relationship

( 18 months- 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language per-mits toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent's coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Instead, children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals. For example, one 2- year- old asked her parents to read a story before leaving her with a babysitter. The extra time with her parents, along with a better understanding of where they were going (" to have dinner with Uncle Charlie") and when they would be back (" right after you go to sleep"), helped this child withstand her parents' absence.

The Easy Child

( 40 percent of the sample) quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.

Periods of Development

-Prenatal development (conception-birth: most rapid time of change, one celled organism transformed into human body, can adjust to surrounding world) -Infancy/Toddlerhood (birth-2: dramatic changes in body and brain that allow for motor, perceptual, and intellectual changes, beginning of language, attachment begins, first independent steps, infancy=birth-1, toddlerhood=1-2) -Early childhood (2-6: body is longer and leaner, motor sills refined, children are more self-controlled and self-efficient, thought and language expand, ties with peers) -Middle childhood (6-11: learn about wider world and master new responsibilities, improved athletic abilities, participation in organized games with rules, more logical thought, mastery of basic literacy skills, understanding morality and friendship) -Adolescence (11-18: transition into adulthood, puberty and sexual maturity, thought is abstract and idealistic, schooling is directed toward prep for higher education/work world) **Emerging adolescence: 18-25, not accepting of adult-roles yet, exploring world, not yet enduring life commitments**

Anal Stage

1-3 years Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder.

Formal Operational

11+ The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real- world circumstances.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1712- 1778 Discontinuous Nature One course of development This French philosophe believed that human beings had been most free and happy in the state of nature (the "noble savage"), but had been corrupted by civilization

Charles Darwin

1809-1882 He was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection

G. Stanley Hall

1844- 1924 Inspired by Darwin's work, ____ and his well-known student Arnold Gesell (1880- 1961) developed theories based on evolutionary ideas. These early leaders regarded child development as a maturational process— a genetically deter-mined series of events that unfold automatically, much like a flower

Alfred Binet

1857-1911 French psychologist who developed the first intelligence test in the early 20th century, which later became known as the Stanford-Binet.

James Mark Baldwin

1861-1934 American psychologist who believed that children developed through a sequence of stages, but granted nature and nurture equal importance.

John Watson

1878-1958 American psychologist who founded behaviorism; classically conditioned LIttle Albert in order to demonstrate that emotions can be learned

Lev Vygotsky

1896-1934; Field: development; Vygotsky investigated child development and how this was guided by the role of culture and interpersonal communication. Vygotsky observed how higher mental functions developed historically within particular cultural groups, as well as individually through social interactions with significant people in a childs life, particularly parents, but also other adults. Through these interactions, a child came to learn the habits of mind of her/his culture, including speech patterns, written language, and other symbolic knowledge through which the child derives meaning and which affected a childs construction of her/his knowledge.

Jean Piaget

1896-1980 Brilliant observer of children- children make constant mental adaptations to new observations experiments, equilibration is a child's attempt to reach a balance between what the child encounters in the environment and what cognitive structures the child brings to the situation. Developed cognitive developmental theory

Erik Erikson

1902-1994, Theorist who proposed that as humans develop, they have psycho-social tasks that, if completed, lead to healthy development.

B.F. Skinner

1904-1990 This American behaviorist and inventor built on the classical conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov and developed what he called Operant Conditioning based on the premise that reinforced behaviors tend to continue, while those that are punished or are not reinforced tend to gradually end.

Urie Bronfenbrenner

1917-2005, Theory of development is an ecological systems theory that stresses the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and the macrosystem. He is credited with creating the theory of human ecology. It is not a stage theory.

Preoperational stage

2-7 years Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensori-motor discoveries. Development of language and make- believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

Phallic Stage

3-6 years As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud's Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other- sex parent and hostility toward the same- sex parent. To avoid punishment and loss of parental love, they suppress these impulses and, instead, adopt the same- sex parent's characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty whenever they violate its standards.

Initiative Vs. Guilt

3-6 years Through make- believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can become. Initiative— a sense of ambition and responsibility— develops when parents support their child's new sense of purpose. The danger is that parents will demand too much self- control, which leads to overcontrol, meaning too much guilt.

Attachment in the Making Phase

6 weeks-6-8 months During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. For example, the baby smiles, laughs, and babbles more freely with the mother and quiets more quickly when she picks him up. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behaviour of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust— the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signalled— but they still do not protest when separated from her.

Industry Vs. Inferiority

6-11 years At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

Clear Cut Attachment Phase

6-8 months- 18 months-2years Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when the adult on whom they have come to rely leaves. Like stranger anxiety ( see pages 405- 406), separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months, suggesting that infants have developed a clear understanding that the caregiver continues to exist when not in view ( Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978). Consistent with this idea, babies who have not yet mas-tered Piagetian object permanence usually do not become anxious when separated from the parent ( Lester et al., 1974). Besides protesting the parent's departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use her as a secure base from which to explore.

Concrete Operational

7-11 years years Children's reasoning becomes logical and better organized. School- age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, thinking falls short of adult intelligence. It is not yet abstract.

Social Learning Theory

A theory that emphasizes the role of modelling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, in the development of behaviour. Its most recent revision stresses the importance of thinking in social learning and is called social-cognitive theory.

Ethological Theory of Attachment

Based on the evolutionary notions of Darwin. Not only does our body morphology evolve, but also some critical aspects of our behaviour, those that have critical importance for survival. Because behaviour evolves, it is a target of natural selection, just like physical characteristics.Ethologists claim that there is a HEREDITARY COMPONENT TO SOME BEHAVIOURS, but that these genetically coded behaviours are MODIFIED AND SHAPED BY THE ENVIRONMENT too, i.e., heredity is crucially important but does not write the full story. INTERACTION BETWEEN HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IS CRUCIAL.

Ethologgical view aachment Social Freudian Cognitive

Biology heridety gives child ability to cry in order to survive If you reward a baby who cries with attention it will cry more (WRONG) Innate drive to form attachment Baby cannot become attached until they reconize attaachment figure

Basic Trust Vs. Mistrust

Birth-1 year From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort or are handled harshly.

Sensorimotor stage

Birth-2 years Infants " think" by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers.

Preattachment Phase

Birth-6 weeks Built- in signals— grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult's eyes— help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans. Once an adult responds, infants encourage her to remain nearby because close-ness comforts them. Babies of this age recognize their own mother's smell, voice, and face ( see Chapter 4). But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety.

Psychosocial Theory

Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribu-tion to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society.

Resistant Attachment

Even before the separation episode when the caretaker leaves, these infants are often clingy and whiny, and often fail to explore. They are usually quite distressed when their caretakers leave, and when these caretakers return it is difficult to settle these infants down. Their behavior is characterized by a mix of clinginess and anger, with the infant wanting to be held but then struggling to get down and even hitting or pushing their caretakers away. Because of this mix of clinginess and anger, these infants are sometimes described as ambivalently attached. Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return, they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behaviour, struggling when held and some-times hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry and cling after being picked up and can-not be comforted easily. About 10-15% of North American infants are

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuro-science, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behaviour patterns.

Thomas & Chess

Men that developed the three types of temperaments in babies: easy, slow to warm, difficult

Generativity Vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

Slow to warm up, Poor, Good

The ___________ CHILD is particularly shy about new experiences, and withdraws from them. This withdrawal is not the high intensity reaction of the difficult child but rather a quieter one. This child has particular difficulty adjusting to new situations. _______ fit—There are two sorts of parents who exacerbate this child's difficulties. Parents who are impatient with the child's withdrawal reaction to novelty and who push the child. The more they push, the more the child withdraws, and then parents push some more. Pretty soon you get a child who is seriously withdrawn. Parents who immediately withdraw a child from new situations as soon as they see that the child is uncomfortable. Unfortunately, the child then never gets a chance to adapt to this new situation, and thus their chance to learn new things is limited for them by their parents. Therefore, they arrive at school with fewer background experiences to draw from and they are often handicapped by this. _______ fit—Parents who understand that the child needs time to adjust to new situations at their own pace and speed. They allow the child this time, while being supportive. They don't limit their child's experiences, but they do let the child take time to become comfortable in the new situation.

Difficult child, Poor, Good

The _____________ really stresses caretakers. The child often has temper tantrums and reacts extremely negatively to new experiences. ________ Fit—Parental behaviour that exacerbates problems: impatient parents who lose their tempers in return, and who are inconsistent and harsh in their reactions to the child's behaviour. What is the outcome? Children who act out even more and parents who in turn become even more frustrated and coercive. Chess and Thomas found that children with this combination of difficult temperament and care taking environment were more likely to end up with behaviour problems and have difficulty in school. ________ fit—Parental behaviour that helps difficult children cope: very patient parents who seldom lose their tempers in response to child emotional outbursts, and who are firm and consistent about enforcing rules of behaviour.

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

These infants seem to be the most insecure of all. They have no coherent pattern to their behavior. Rather, they show confused and contradictory behavior. They look dazed, and often freeze in the middle of their movements. They also often seem fearful. This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviours— for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after hav-ing calmed down or display odd, frozen postures. About 5-10% of North American infants have a

Advoidant Attachment

These infants seem to pay little attention to the caretaker before he or she leaves, and when the caretaker leaves, they show little distress. An important characteristic of these children is that when their caretakers return, these infants avoid them or increase their distance from them. They look away, or are very slow to greet their parents if they pay any attention to them at all. These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is pres-ent. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling. About 15-20% of North American infants are

Secure Attachment

These infants use their attachment figure (their mother, father, or other consistent caretaker) as a secure base, and thus they readily play when the parent or other attachment figure is around. They are less likely to cling or whine, but play happily. They are upset when the attachment figure leaves and often cry, and readily approach the parent when he or she returns, seeking physical contact. They are easily comforted and easily re-engaged in play as long as the attachment figure is there. They typically are upset when they are left alone and are generally not much comforted by the stranger when she enters. However, they enthusiastically approach their attachment figure when he or she re-enters, to be comforted again. These infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately. About 65% of North American infants are

Goodness of fit Model

Thomas and Chess (1977) proposed a ___________ model to explain how temperament and environment together can pro-duce favourable outcomes. _____________ involves creating child- rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning.

Intimacy Vs. Isolation

Young Adulthood Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated.

Ethology

_______ focuses on the adaptive, or survival, value of behaviour and on similarities between human behaviour and that of other species, especially our primate relatives. Observing this chimpanzee mother cuddling her 8- day- old infant helps us understand the human- infant caregiver relationship.

Child Development

an area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence. Part of a larger field of study, Developmental Science, which studies throughout entire lifespan.

Theory

an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviour. First, they provide organizing frameworks for our observations of children. In other words, they guide and give meaning to what we see. Second, verified by research often serve as a sound basis for practical action.

Oral Stage

birth-1 year The new ego directs the baby's sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life.

Behaviorism

directly observable events— stimuli and responses— are the appropriate focus of study. North American ________ began in the early twentieth century with the work of psychologist John Watson ( 1878- 1958), who, rejecting the psychoanalytic concern with the unseen workings of the mind, set out to create an objective science of psychology.

Temperament

early- appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self- regulation. Reactivity refers to variations in quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor action. Self- regulation, as we have seen, refers to strategies that modify reactivity

Theory

explains facts; organizes them; generates testable predictions; and allows us some degree of control over what happens.

Emotion

expresses your readiness to establish, main-tain, or change your relation to the environment on a matter of importance to you

Basic Emotions

happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust— are universal in humans and other primates, have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival, and can be directly inferred from facial expressions.

Albert Bandura

he theorized that (social cognitive theory) personality is acquired not only by direct reinforcement of behavior but also by observational learning, or imitation

3 parts of personality - Sigmund Freud

id=irrational unconscience, driven by sexual desire;ego=the rationalizing conscience or can do;superego=ingrained moral values or should do

Chrono-system

is not a specific context. Instead, it refers to the dynamic, ever- changing nature of the person's environment.

Attachment

is the strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.

Disoriented/disorganized attached 6-year-olds

showed the least coherence. Children were not particularly interested in the photo and in terms of their behavior, they could show a range of behaviors, including fear, hostility, disorientation, and so on. They also could show odd behaviors that were inappropriate, and their conversation with their parents showed the most dysfluency of all the children.

Exosystem

social settings that affect but do not contain the child

Resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

Continuous Development

the view that development is a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with

Mary Main

was the first to study what the behavior of older children was in a similar but more developmentally appropriate situation for older children than the Strange Situation. She was interested in 6 year olds. These children had all been classified into the different categories of attachment as infants, using the Strange Situation, and she wanted to know what happened when they were older. She brought the children and their parents into her lab. The family was photographed and each member was interviewed separately, and then the parents reunited with the child one by one and the reunion behaviors assessed.

Securely attached 6-year-olds

were pleased with the family photo but casual about it. They greeted parents affectionately, initiated interaction and responded eagerly to parental remarks. Their conversation was fluid with few pauses and little hesitation or groping for words. The conversation was balanced between parents and children, with both contributing equally to the conversation, and the focus of talk shifted easily and often between talking about objects, about activities, and relationships.

Avoidantly attached 6-year-olds

when given the family photo, didn't look at it, or turned away or dropped it. When reunited with parents they ignored them, responded minimally when addressed, and often moved a distance away from them. Discourse was quite dysfluent, with lots of hesitations and groping for words, a very limited selection of topics, and in general showed that conversation was not natural or easy with each other.

Resistantly attached 6-year-olds

when given the family photo, often held it and looked at it for a long time, often with sadness. When reunited with parents they attempted to control them through either punitive behavior or else anxious, overly solicitous "care giving" behavior. Their conversation also was not fluid, with lots of hesitations and a limited range of topics.

Emotional Self Regulation

Strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals.

Easy, Poor, Good

The ______ CHILD is generally responsive to the parents' socialization. They tend to behave in ways that their parents foster. ______ fit—Parents who strongly socialize a child in ways that do not fit in with the child's larger environment pose a problem for this child. That is, the home environment and the school and neighbourhood environment strongly clash. _______ fit—Parental behaviour that fits in with the expectations of the child's social world, i.e., school, the neighbourhood, and so on.

Socialcultural Theory

Vygotsky's theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.

Embarrassment Shame Guilt Envy Pride

When infants are between 1 ½ and 3 years of age, they begin to display secondary (or complex) emotions. These are also called self-conscious emotions because they involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self:

Parents of securely attached

babies are sensitive to the baby's needs and wishes; they are responsive, try to figure out what the baby wants; they respond quickly and are warm and affectionate. They provide a supportive environment without being pushy and demanding.

Microsystem

concerns relations between the child and the immediate environment

Mesosystem

connections among immediate settings

John Bowlby

father of attachment theory

Empatthy

involves a complex interaction of cognition and affect: the ability to detect different emotions, to take another's emotional per-spective, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way.

Sensitive Period

is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences.

John Locke

1632-1704 Continuous Nurture Many course of development 17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .

Sigmund Freud

1856-1939 developed psychosexual theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development.

Integrity Vs. Despair

Old Age In this final stage, individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

Major Domains of Development

Physical, Cognitive, Emotional & Social

Social Referencing

Relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation.

Discontinuous Development

The view that development is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge in specific stages.

Two Models Of Temperament

Thomas & Chess . Rothbart