Child Development: Chapter 12
theory of multiple intelligences
Gardener's theory, which proposes at least eight independent intelligences; defined in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage, extending from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which thought becomes logical, flexible, and organized in its application to concrete information, but the capacity for abstract thinking is not yet present
triarchic theory of successful intelligence
Sternberg's theory, which identifies three broad, interacting intelligences (analytical, creative, and practical) that must be balanced to achieve success according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community
constructivist classroom
a classroom grounded in Piaget's view of children as active learners who construct their own knowledge; features include: richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self-chosen problems, a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs, and evaluation based on individual students' progress in relation to their own prior development
social constructionist classroom
a classroom grounded in Vygotsky's theory, in which children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers with whom they jointly construct understanding
traditional classroom
a classroom in which the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making and students are relatively passive learners who are evaluated in relation to a uniform set of standards for their grade
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
a disorder involving inattention , impulsivity, and excessive motor activity; results in academic and social problems
recursive thought
a form of perspective taking that requires the ability to view a situation from at least two perspectives; reason simultaneously about what two or more people are thinking
elaboration
a memory strategy that involves creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more items of information that are not members of the same category
organization
a memory strategy that involves grouping related items together to improve recall
rehearsal
a memory strategy that involves repeating information to oneself to improve recall
reciprocal teaching
a teaching method in which a teacher and two to four students form a cooperative group and take turns leading dialogues; creates a zone of proximal development in which children scaffold one another's progress
whole language approach
an approach to beginning reading instruction in which children are exposed to text in its complete form; uses reading materials that are whole and meaningful to promote appreciation of the communicative function of written language
phonics approach
an approach to beginning reading instruction that emphasizes coaching children on phonics (the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds) before exposing them to complex reading material
communities of learners
an educational approach inspired by Vygotsky's theory, in which teachers guide the overall process of learning, but otherwise, no distinction is made between adult and child contributors; all participate in joint endeavors, and students have the authority to define and resolve problems as they work toward project goals, which often address complex real-world issues
dynamic assessment
an innovative approach to testing consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development; an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support
inclusive classrooms
classrooms in which students with learning difficulties alongside typical students in regular education setting for part or all of the school day
cooperative learning
collaboration on a task by a small group of classmates who work toward common goals by considering one another's ideas, appropriately challenging one another, providing sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings, and resolving differences of opinion on the basis of reasons and evidence
gifted
displaying exceptional intellectual strengths (high IQ, creativity, specialized talent)
learning disabilities
great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading, resulting in achievement considerably behind what would be expected on the basis of a child's IQ
decentration
in Piaget's theory, the capacity of concrete operational children to focus on several aspects of a problem and relate them
cognitive maps
mental representations of spaces such as a classroom, school, or neighborhood
talent
outstanding performance in a specific field
educational self fulfilling prophecies
teachers' positive or negative views of individual children, who attend to adopt and start to live up to those views
seriation
the ability to order items along a qualitative dimension (length, weight)
creativity
the ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate; something others have not thought of that is useful in some way
transitive inference
the ability to seriate (order items along a quantitative dimension) mentally
metalinguistic awareness
the ability to think about language as a system
reversibility
the capacity to think through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point
stereotype threat
the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype; can trigger anxiety that performs with performance
cognitive self regulation
the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts
flynn effect
the steady increase in IQ from one generation to the next
divergent thinking
the type of thinking associated with creativity; involves generating multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem
convergent thinking
the type of thinking emphasized on intelligence tests; involves arriving at a single correct answer to a problem
